Secondary education covers two phases on the
International Standard Classification of Education
scale. Level 2 or lower secondary education
(less common junior secondary education ) is
considered the second and final phase of basic
education, and level 3 (upper) secondary
education is the stage before tertiary education.
Every country aims to provide basic education,
but the systems and terminology remain unique
to them. Secondary education typically takes
place after six years of primary education and is
followed by higher education, vocational
education or employment. [1] Like primary
education, in most countries secondary
education is compulsory , at least until the age of
16. Children typically enter the lower secondary
phase around age 11. Compulsory education
sometimes extends to age 19.
Since 1989, education has been seen as a basic
human right for a child; Article 28, of the
Convention on the Rights of the Child states that
primary education should be free and
compulsory while different forms of secondary
education, including general and vocational
education, should be available and accessible to
every child. The terminology has proved difficult,
and there was no universal definition before
ISCED divided the period between primary
education and university into junior secondary
education and upper secondary education.
In classical and mediaeval times secondary
education was provided by the church for the
sons of nobility and to boys preparing for
universities and the priesthood. As trade required
navigational and scientific skills the church
reluctantly expanded the curriculum and widened
the intake. With the Reformation the state
wrestled the control of learning from the church,
and with Comenius and John Locke education
changed from being repetition of Latin text to
building up knowledge in the child. Education
was for the few. Up to the middle of the 19th
century, secondary schools were organised to
satisfy the needs of different social classes with
the labouring classes getting 4 years, the
merchant class 5 years and the elite getting 7
years. The rights to a secondary education were
codified after 1945, and countries are still
working to achieve the goal of mandatory and
free secondary education for all youth under 19.
Definition
The 1997 International Standard Classification of
Education (ISCED) describes seven levels that
can be used to compare education
internationally. Within a country these can be
implemented in different ways, with different age
levels and local denominations. The seven levels
are: [1]
Level 0 – Pre-primary education
Level 1 – Primary education or first stage of
basic education
Level 2 – Lower secondary or second stage
of basic education
Level 3 – (Upper) secondary education
Level 4 – Post-secondary non-tertiary
education
Level 5 – First stage of tertiary education
Level 6 – Second stage of tertiary education
Within this system, Levels 1 and 2 – that is,
primary education and lower secondary –
together form basic education . Beyond that,
national governments may attach the label of
secondary education to Levels 2 through 4
together, Levels 2 and 3 together, or Level 2
alone. These level definition were put together
for statistical purposes, and to allow the
gathering of comparative data nationally and
internationally. They were approved by the
UNESCO General Conference at its 29th session
in November 1997. Though they may be dated,
they do provide a universal set of definitions[1]
and remain unchanged in the 2011 update. [3]
The start of lower secondary education is
characterised by the transition from the single-
class-teacher, who delivers all content to a
cohort of pupils, to one where content is
delivered by a series of subject specialists. Its
educational aim is to complete provision of
basic education (thereby completing the delivery
of basic skills) and to lay the foundations for
lifelong learning. [1]
Lower secondary education is likely to show
these criteria:
entry after some 6 years of primary education
the requirement for more highly qualified
teachers teaching only within their specialism
exit to Level 3 courses, or vocational
education, or employment after 9 or more
total years of education.
The end of lower secondary education often
coincides with the end of compulsory education
in countries where that exists. [1]
(Upper) secondary education starts on the
completion of basic education, which also is
defined as completion of lower secondary
education. The educational focus is varied
according to the student's interests and future
direction. Education at this level is usually
voluntary.
(Upper) secondary education is likely to show
these criteria:
entry after some 9 years of basic education
typical age at entry is between 14 and 16
years
all teachers have level 5 qualifications in the
subject they are teaching
exit to Level 4 or 5 courses or to direct
employment. [1]
More subjects may be dropped, and increased
specialism occurs. Completion of (upper)
secondary education provides the entry
requirements to Level 5 tertiary education, the
entry requirements to technical or vocational
education (Level 4, non tertiary course), or direct
entry into the workplace.
In 2012 the ISCED published a further work on
education levels where it codified particular
paths and redefined the tertiary levels. Lower
secondary education and (upper) secondary
education could last between 2 and 5 years, and
the transition between two often would be when
students were allowed some subject choice. [3]
Terminology for secondary schools varies by
country, and the exact meaning of any of these
varies. [ citation needed] Secondary schools may
also be called academies, colleges , gymnasiums ,
high schools, lyceums , middle schools,
preparatory schools, sixth-form colleges , upper
schools, or vocational schools, among other
names. For further information about
nomenclature, see the section below by country.
History
Further information: History of Education
A form of education for adolescents became
necessary in all societies that had an alphabet
and engaged in commerce. In Western Europe,
formal secondary education can be traced back
to the Athenian educational reforms of 320BC.
Though their civilisation was eclipsed and they
were enslaved, Hellenistic Athenian teachers were
valued in the Roman system. The Roman and
Hellenistic schools of rhetoric taught the seven
liberal arts and sciences – grammar, rhetoric,
logic, arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy
– which were regarded as a preparation for the
study at a tertiary level of theology, law and
medicine. Boys would have been prepared to
enter these schools by private tutors at home.
Girls would have only received tuition at
home. [4] When the Romans retreated, all traces
of civilisation were erased.
England provides a good case study. When
Augustine of Canterbury brought Christianity there
in 597, no schools existed. He needed trained
priests to conduct church services and boys to
sing in the choir. He had to create both the
grammar schools that taught Latin, to enable the
English to study for the priesthood, and song
schools (choir schools) that trained the 'sons of
gentlefolk' to sing in cathedral choirs. [5][4] In
the case of Canterbury (597) and Rochester
(604), both still exist. Bede in his Ecclesiastical
history (732) tells that the Canterbury school
taught more than the 'intended reading and
understanding of Latin', but 'the rules of metric,
astronomy and the computus as well as the
works of the saints' Even at this stage,there was
tension, as the church was worried that
knowledge of Latin would give the student
access to non-Christian texts that it would not
wish them to read. [4]
Over the centuries leading to the renaissance
and reformation the church was the main
provider of secondary education. Various
invasions and schisms within the controlling
church challenged the focus of the schools, and
the curriculum and language of instruction waxed
and waned. From 1100, With the growth of the
towns, grammar schools 'free' of the church were
founded, and some church grammar schools
were handed over to the laïty. Universities were
founded that didn't just train students for the
priesthood. [4]
Renaissance and reformation
Whereas in mainland Europe the renaissance
preceded the reformation , local conditions in
England caused the reformation to come first.
The reformation was about allowing the laïty to
interpret the Bible in their own way without the
intervention of priests, and prefereably in the
vernacular. This stimulated the foundation of free
Grammar schools- who searched for a less
constrained curriculum. Colonialisation required
navigation, mensuration, languages and
administrative skills. The laïty wanted these
taught to their sons. After Gutenberg 1455[6] had
mastered moveable metal type printing and
Tyndale had translated the Bible into English
(1525), [7] Latin became a skill reserved for the
catholic church and sons conservative nobility.
Schools started to be set up for the sons of
merchants in Europe and the colonies too- for
example Boston Latin Grammar School (1635).
Comenius (1592–1670), [8] a Moravian
protestant proposed a new model of education-
where ideas were developed from the familiar to
the theoretical rather than through repetition,
where languages were taught in the vernacular
and supported universal education. In his
Didactica Magna (Great Didactic), [9] he outlined
a system of schools that is the exact counterpart
of many western school systems: kindergarten,
elementary school, secondary school, six-form
college, university. [10] Locke 's Some Thoughts
Concerning Education (1693) stressed the
importance of a broader intellectual training,
moral development and physical hardening. .
The grammar schools of the period can be
categorised in three groups: the nine leading
schools, seven of them boarding institutions
which maintained the traditional curriculum of
the classics, and mostly served 'the aristocracy
and the squirearchy' ; most of the old endowed
grammar schools serving a broad social base in
their immediate localities which also stuck to
the old curriculum; the grammar schools situated
in the larger cities, serving the families of
merchants and tradesmen who embraced
change. [4]
Industrialisation
During the 18th century their social base
widened and their curriculum developed,
particularly in mathematics and the natural
sciences. But this was not universal education
and was self-selecting by wealth [4] The
industrial revolution changed that. Industry
required an educated workforce where all
workers needed to have completed a basic
education. In France, Louis XIV , wrestled the
control of education from the Jesuits, Condorcet
set up Collèges for universal lower secondary
education throughout the country, then Napoleon
set up a regulated system of Lycee . [11] In
England, Robert Peel 's Factory Act of 1802
required an employer to provide instruction in
reading, writing and arithmetic during at least the
first four years of the seven years of
apprenticeship. The state had accepted
responsibility for the basic education of the
poor. The provision of school places remained
inadequate, so an Order in Council dated 10
April 1839 created the Committee of the Privy
Council on Education . [12]
Universal Education
There was considerable opposition to the idea
that children of all classes should receive basic
education, all the initiatives such as industrial
schools and Sunday schools were initially a
private or church initiative. With the Great
Exhibition of 1851 , it became clear just how far
behind the English education system had fallen.
[12]
Three reports were commissioned to examine
the education of upper, middle and labouring
class children. The Clarendon Commission
sought to improve the nine Great Public
Schools. The Taunton Commission looked at the
782 endowed grammar schools (private and
public). They found varying quality and a patchy
geographical coverage, with two thirds of all
towns not having any secondary school. There
was no clear conception of the purpose of
secondary education. There were only thirteen
girls' schools and their tuition was superficial,
unorganised and unscientific. They recommended
a system of first-grade schools targeted at a
leaving age of 18 as preparation for upper and
upper-middle class boys entering university,
second-grade targeted at a leaving age of 16 for
boys preparing for the army or the newer
professions, and third-grade targeted at a leaving
age of 14 for boys of small tenant farmers,
small tradesmen, and superior artisans. This
resulted in the 1869 Endowed Schools Act which
advocated that girls should enjoy the same
education as boys. [13]
The Newcastle Commission inquired "into the
state of public education in England and to
consider and report what measures, if any, are
required for the extension of sound and cheap
elementary instruction to all classes of the
people". It produced 1861 Newcastle Report and
this led to the 1870 Elementary Education Act
(Forster Act). [13]
The school boards set up by the 1870
Elementary Education Act (Forster Act) and were
stopped from providing secondary education by
the Cockerton Judgement of 1899. The school
leaving age at this time was 10. The Judgement
prompted the 1902 Education Act (Balfour Act).
Compulsory education was extended to 12. The
new Local Education Authorities (LEA)s that were
formed from the school boards; started to open
Higher Grade Elementary Schools (ISCED Level2)
or county schools to supplement the endowed
grammar schools. These LEAs were allowed to
build second-grade secondary schools that in the
main became the future secondary modern
schools. [14]
In the " 1904 Regulations for Secondary Schools ",
the Board of Education determined that
secondary schools should offer a:
The Education Act 1918 (Fisher Act) extended
compulsory full-time education to 14 , and
recommended compulsory part-time education
from 14–18. The Hadlow report, "Education the
Adolescent" (1926) proposed that there should
be a break point at eleven, establishing primary
schools and secondary schools. [14]
The United Nations , founded in 1947, was
committed to education for all but the definition
was difficult to formulate. The Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (1948) declared
that elementary and fundamental education,
which it didn't define, was a right to be enjoyed
by all. The Education Act 1944 (Butler Act)
made sweeping changes to the funding of state
education using the tripartite system, but wasn't
allowed to tackle private schools. It introduced
the GCE 'O'level at 16, and the 'A' at 18, but only
raised the school leaving age until 15, making
the exam inaccessible to the majority. But one
year of ISCED Level 3 (Upper) secondary
education was mandatory and free. [15]
In 1972 the school leaving was raised to 16.
The Education and Skills Act 2008 , when it came
into force in the 2013 academic year, initially
required participation in some form of education
or training until the school year in which the
child turned 17, followed by the age being raised
to the young person's 18th birthday in 2015. [16]
This was referred to as raising the "participation
age" [17] to distinguish it from the school leaving
age which remains at 16. [18] Thus the UK is
following the ISCED Level 3 (Upper) secondary
education guideline.
Right to a secondary
education
The United Nations was strong in its
commitment to education for all but fell into
linguistic difficultly defining that right.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(1948) declared that elementary and fundamental
education was a right to be enjoyed by all, but
again could not define either elementary and
fundamental education.
It was assumed that elementary education was
basic education, the entitlement for children- and
fundamental education was a right for the
working man, but for a lawyer the definition is
neither qualitative (stating what education
means) or quantitative saying when it starts and
when it is completed. The term secondary is not
defined or mentioned. Together this has enabled
countries to terminate free, compulsory, basic
education at 11 or only continue education past
eleven to boys. [19]
Article 28, of the Convention on the Rights of the
Child (1989) stated that primary education
should be free and compulsory while different
forms of secondary education, including general
and vocational education, should be available
and accessible to every child. Free education
should be provided and financial assistance
offered in case of need. [20] In 1990, at Jomtien
again tried to define the content basic education
and how it should be delivered. ‘Basic education’
is defined as ‘action designed to meet ‘basic
learning needs’. ‘primary schooling’ is considered
as ‘the main delivery system of basic education’.
[21] Which is explained in Principals for Action
that:
The assumption being made that basic
knowledge and life skills training for youth was
the function of secondary education. This was
codified by the ISCED documents. [22] The
Dakar Framework for Action 2010 goal 2 states:
Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly
girls, children in difficult circumstances and
those belonging to ethnic minorities, have
access to and complete free and compulsory
(primary in the sense basic) education of good
quality. The Dakar Framework for Action 2010
goal 5 states: Eliminating gender disparities in
primary and secondary education by 2005, and
achieving gender equality in education by 2015,
with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal
access to and achievement in basic education of
good quality. [23]
Malala Yousafzai , Nobel Peace Prize winner in a
said in a 2017 interview that:
Future directions for
secondary education
UNESCO believes that in order to prepare young
people for life and work in a rapidly changing
world, secondary-level education systems need
to be re-oriented to impart a broad repertoire of
life-skills. These skills should include the key
generic competencies, non occupation-specific
practical capabilities, ICT, the ability to learn
independently, to work in teams,
entrepreneurship and civic responsibility. [25]
They may be best instilled through a shared
foundational learning period and by deferring the
directing of students into academic and
vocational streams for as long as possible, and
then there should be flexibility to ensure the free
movement of students between the streams
depending on their aptitudes and inclinations.
Accreditation in one stream should have equal
recognition in the other as well as for access to
higher education. This will equip young people
with multiple skills so that they are prepared to
enter and re-enter the workforce several times in
their working lives, as wage employees or self-
employed entrepreneurs, and to re-train
themselves when their skills become
obsolete. [25]
It recognizes that there is no single model that
will suit all countries, or even all communities in
a given country. Secondary-level education policy
should be under continuous review to keep in
step with scientific and technological, economic
and societal change. [25]
By country
Main article: List of secondary education
systems by country
Each country has developed the form of
education most appropriate for them. There is an
attempt to compare the effectiveness by using
the results from the PISA that, each third year,
assesses the scholastic performance on
mathematics, science, and reading of a
representative sample of 5000 fifteen year olds
from each country. [26]
Names for secondary schools by country
Argentina: secundaria or polimodal, escuela
secundaria
Australia : high school , secondary college
Austria: Gymnasium (Ober- & Unterstufe),
Hauptschule, Höhere Bundeslehranstalt
(HBLA), Höhere Technische Lehranstalt (HTL)
Azerbaijan: orta məktəb
Bahamas, The : junior high (grades 7–9),
senior high (grades 10–12)
Belgium: lagere school/école primaire ,
secundair onderwijs/école secondaire,
humaniora/humanités
Bolivia: educación primaria superior (grades
6–8) and educación secundaria, (grades 9–
12)
Bosnia and Herzegovina: srednja škola
(literally middle school ), gimnazija
(gymnasium)
Brazil : ensino médio (officially), segundo grau
(formerly)
Brunei : mostly sekolah menengah (English
translation: secondary school ), a few maktab
(English translation: college )
Bulgaria : cредно образование (grades 8–12)
Canada : High school , junior high or middle
school, secondary school , école secondaire ,
collegiate institute , polyvalente
Chile : enseñanza media
China : zhong xue (中学; literally, middle
school), consisting of chu zhong (初中; 初级中
学; literally low-level middle school) from
grades 7 to 9 and gao zhong (高中; 高级中学 ;
literally high-level middle school ) from grades
10 to 12
Colombia : bachillerato , segunda enseñanza
(literally second learning )
Croatia : srednja škola (literally middle school ),
gimnazija ( gymnasium)
Cyprus : Γυμνάσιο ( gymnasium), Ενιαίο Λύκειο
(Lyceum )
Czech Republic : střední škola (literally middle
school), gymnázium (gymnasium ), střední
odborné učiliště
Denmark: gymnasium
Dominican Republic : nivel medio , bachillerato
Egypt: Thanawya Amma ( ﺛﺎﻧﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ), (public
secondary certificate)
Estonia : upper secondary school , gymnasium,
Lyceum
Finland: lukio ( Finn. ) gymnasium (Swed. )
France: collège (junior), lycée (senior)
Germany: Gymnasium, Gesamtschule,
Realschule, Hauptschule, Fachoberschule
Greece: Γυμνάσιο (3 years) (gymnasium),
Γενικό Λύκειο (3 years) (~1996,
2006~present), Ενιαίο Λύκειο (3 years),
(1997~2006) (lyceum )
Hong Kong: Secondary school (中學)
Hungary: gimnázium (grammar school),
középiskola (comprehensive school, lit.
"middle-school"), szakközépiskola (vocational
secondary school, lit. "specified middle-
school")
Iceland : framhaldsskóli (menntaskóli, iðnskóli ,
fjölbrautaskóli) from 11-13 Grade. You go first
in 1 - 10 Grade then you change the school to
Menntaskóla and take 3 years (11-13 Grade).
But you can also take it 4 years.
India: secondary school , higher secondary
school
Indonesia : sekolah menengah atas (SMA ) (lit.
"upper middle school"), sekolah menengah
pertama (SMP ) (lit. "first middle school"),
sekolah menengah kejuruan ( SMK ) (vocational
school, lit. "middle vocational school")
Ireland: Meánscoil or Secondary School
Iran : Madrese Rahnamaie ( ﻣﺪﺭﺳﻪ ﺭﺍﻫﻨﻤﺎﯾﯽ ),
(public secondary certificate)
Israel: Bet Sefer Tichon ( בית ספר תיכון )
(literally middle school , but in reality grades
9-12)
Italy: scuola secondaria di primo grado (3
years) + scuola secondaria di secondo grado
(5 years): Liceo, Istituto Tecnico and
professionale (3–4 years)
Japan: chūgakkō (中学校; literally middle
school), kōtōgakkō (高等学校; literally high
school), chūtōkyōikugakkō (中等教育学校;
Secondary School) – In the pre- Meiji
educational system, the equivalent was called
"chūsei"
South Korea : 중등교육 ( joongdeung gyoyook ;
literally middle education ), comprising 중학교
(joonghakkyo; grades 7–9, though referred to
as "middle school grades 1–3") and 고등학교
(godeunghakkyo ; grades 10–12, though
referred to as "high school grades 1–3")
Latvia : vidusskola (literally middle school )
Liechtenstein: gymnasium
Lithuania : vidurinė mokykla (literally middle
school), gimnazija (gymnasium), licėjus
(lyceum )
Malaysia : secondary school or sekolah
menengah, sometimes high school is used
Malta: skola sekondarja or secondary school
Mexico: educación secundaria y preparatoria
Mongolia: бүрэн дунд сургууль
Netherlands: middelbare school or voortgezet
onderwijs
New Zealand: high school , college or
secondary school
Nigeria : Secondary school , Junior or senior
secondary school
Norway: videregående skole
Pakistan: secondary school , higher secondary
school
Paraguay: educación media
Peru: educación secundaria or escuela
secundaria
Philippines: high school or mataas na
paaralan
Poland: gimnazjum (grades 7–9), liceum
(grades 10–12)
Portugal : 2º Ciclo do Ensino Básico (5th and
6th grades), 3º Ciclo do Ensino Básico (7th to
9th grades), and Ensino Secundário , Liceu
(10th to 12th grades)
Romania: gimnaziu (grades 5–8), liceu
(grades 9–12)
Russia: средняя школа (literally middle
school); grades 5–9 junior middle school
(compulsory), grades 10–11 senior middle
school (voluntary)
Serbia : gymnasium (4 years), professional
schools (4 years), vocational schools (3 or 4
years)
South Africa : High School or Hoërskool
Spain : educación secundaria , composed of
two cycles: E.S.O. (Educación Secundaria
Obligatoria, compulsory secondary education,
4 years, 7th to 10th grade) and bachillerato
(non-compulsory secondary education, 2
years, 11th and 12th grade); formerly, primary
education comprised up to the 8th grade and
the secondary education was composed of
two non-compulsory cycles: B.U.P.
(Bachillerato Unificado Polivalente , 3 years,
9th to 11th grade) and C.O.U. (Curso de
Orientación Universitaria, 1 year, 12th grade)
Sri Lanka : junior secondary school , senior
secondary school
Sweden : gymnasium
Switzerland: gymnasium, secondary school ,
collège or lycée
Taiwan : Junior High School (國民中學), Senior
High School (高級中學), Vocational High
School (高級職業中學), Military School (軍校),
and Complete High School (完全中學).
Thailand: matthayommasueksa ( มัธยมศึกษา ; lit.
"Secondary education")
Trinidad and Tobago : Secondary School ,
Forms 1 to 5 (5 years) or Forms 1-6 (7
years)
Turkey: Lise
Ukraine : середня освіта ( transliteration :
serednya osvita )
United Kingdom : Secondary School (May be
referred to as High School )
United States : High school (North America)
(usually grades 9–12 but sometimes 10–12,
it is also called senior high school ) is always
considered secondary education; junior high
school or intermediate school or middle
school (6–8, 7–8, 6–9, 7–9, or other
variations) are sometimes considered
secondary education.
Uruguay : Liceo or Secundaria (3 years of
compulsory education: Ciclo Básico ; and 3
years of specialization: Bachillerato
Diversificado , into: Humanities (Law or
Economics), Biology (Medicine or Agronomy),
Science (Engineering or Architecture), and Art
Venezuela: bachillerato
Vietnam: Trung học cơ sở (abbreviated THCS,
lit. "basic middle school", equivalent to junior
high school in the U.S.); trung học phổ thông
(abbr. THPT, lit. "general middle school",
equivalent to senior high school in the U.S.)
South Korea : 고등학교 (lit. trans. from the
American term "high school") (equiv. to
America's 10th-12th grades) [ citation needed]
See also
Schools portal
Book: Education
Education Index
Category:Secondary education by country for
secondary education in individual countries
List of colleges and universities by country
List of the oldest schools in the world
List of schools by country
List of countries by secondary education
attainment
Programme for International Student
Assessment (2000 to 2012) PISA test of 15yr
old attainment
References
1. ^ a b c d e f ISCED 1997 .
2. ^ Iwamoto 2005.
3. ^ a b ISCED 2012 .
4. ^ a b c d e f Gillard 2017 .
5. ^ Leach 1915, 3.
6. ^ Man, John (2002). Gutenberg: How One
Man Remade the World with Words . New York:
John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-21823-5 .
7. ^ Partridge, AC (1973), English Biblical
Translation , London: Andrè Deutsch, pp. 38–39,
52–52.
8. ^ Daniel Murphy, Comenius: A Critical
Reassessment of his Life and Works (1995), p. 8
and p. 43.
9. ^ Comenius. "Didactica Magna" . Archived
from the original on 10 October 2014.
Retrieved 13 March 2017.
10. ^ Gilman, D. C. ; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F.
M., eds. (1905). "Comenius, Johann Amos" .
New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New
York: Dodd, Mead.
11. ^ Markham, David J. "The Revolution,
Napoleon, and Education" . www.napoleon-
series.org . Retrieved 16 March 2017.
12. ^ a b Gillard 2017 , Section 2.
13. ^ a b Gillard 2017 , Section 3.
14. ^ a b c Gillard 2017 , Section 4.
15. ^ Gillard 2017, Section 5.
16. ^ Raising the Participation Age – Timeline
HMSO, 24 August 2012
17. ^ Raising the Participation Age (RPA) –
Myth Buster for Young People HMSO, 29 July
2013
18. ^ School leaving age HMSO, 19
November 2014
19. ^ Basic Education 2007 .
20. ^ Basic Education 2007 , p. 25.
21. ^ a b Basic Education 2007 , p. 6.
22. ^ Basic Education 2007 , p. 8.
23. ^ Basic Education 2007 , p. 14.
24. ^ Association, Press (11 March 2017).
"Malala Yousafzai receives offer to study at UK
university" . The Guardian . Retrieved 11 March
2017.
25. ^ a b c ED-2005/WS/37 2005 .
26. ^ Berger, Kathleen. Invitation to The Life
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