SHOES

This article is about footwear. For other uses,
see Shoe (disambiguation) .
"Insole" redirects here. For other uses, see
Insole (disambiguation) .
Museum display of shoes
A shoe is an item of footwear intended to
protect and comfort the human foot while the
wearer is doing various activities. Shoes are also
used as an item of decoration and fashion . The
design of shoes has varied enormously through
time and from culture to culture, with appearance
originally being tied to function. Additionally,
fashion has often dictated many design
elements, such as whether shoes have very high
heels or flat ones. Contemporary footwear in the
2010s varies widely in style, complexity and
cost. Basic sandals may consist of only a thin
sole and simple strap and be sold for a low
cost. High fashion shoes made by famous
designers may be made of expensive materials,
use complex construction and sell for hundreds
or even thousands of dollars a pair. Some shoes
are designed for specific purposes, such as
boots designed specifically for mountaineering or
skiing.
Traditionally, shoes have been made from
leather, wood or canvas , but in the 2010s, they
are increasingly made from rubber , plastics, and
other petrochemical-derived materials. Though
the human foot is adapted to varied terrain and
climate conditions, it is still vulnerable to
environmental hazards such as sharp rocks and
temperature extremes, which shoes protect
against. Some shoes are worn as safety
equipment, such as steel-soled boots which are
required on construction sites.
History
Antiquity
The oldest known leather shoe,
about 5500 years old, found in
Armenia
Esparto sandals from the 6th or 5th
millennium BC found in Spain
Roman shoes: a man's [1] , a woman's [2]
and a child's [3] shoe from Bar Hill
Roman Fort , Scotland.
The earliest known shoes are sagebrush bark
sandals dating from approximately 7000 or 8000
BC, found in the Fort Rock Cave in the US state
of Oregon in 1938. [4] The world's oldest leather
shoe , made from a single piece of cowhide
laced with a leather cord along seams at the
front and back, was found in the Areni-1 cave
complex in Armenia in 2008 and is believed to
date to 3500 BC. [5][6] Ötzi the Iceman's shoes,
dating to 3300 BC, featured brown bearskin
bases, deerskin side panels, and a bark-string
net, which pulled tight around the foot. [5] The
Jotunheimen shoe was discovered in August
2006. Archaeologists estimate that the leather
shoe was made between 1800 and 1100 BC, [7]
making it the oldest article of clothing
discovered in Scandinavia.
It is thought that shoes may have been used
long before this, but because the materials used
were highly perishable, it is difficult to find
evidence of the earliest footwear. [8] By studying
the bones of the smaller toes (as opposed to
the big toe), it was observed that their thickness
decreased approximately 40,000 to 26,000 years
ago. This led archaeologists to deduce that
wearing shoes resulted in less bone growth,
resulting in shorter, thinner toes. [9] These
earliest designs were very simple in design,
often mere "foot bags" of leather to protect the
feet from rocks, debris, and cold. They were
more commonly found in colder
climates. [ citation needed ]
Many early natives in North America wore a
similar type of footwear, known as the
moccasin. These are tight-fitting, soft-soled
shoes typically made out of leather or bison
hides. Many moccasins were also decorated
with various beads and other adornments.
Moccasins were not designed to be waterproof,
and in wet weather and warm summer months,
most Native Americans went barefoot . [10]
As civilizations began to develop, thong sandals
(the precursors of the modern flip-flop ) were
worn. This practice dates back to pictures of
them in ancient Egyptian murals from 4000 BC.
One pair found in Europe was made of papyrus
leaves and dated to be approximately 1,500
years old. They were also worn in Jerusalem
during the first century of the Common Era. [11]
Thong sandals were worn by many civilizations
and made from a wide variety of materials.
Ancient Egyptian sandals were made from
papyrus and palm leaves. The Masai of Africa
made them out of rawhide . In India they were
made from wood. In China and Japan, rice straw
was used. The leaves of the sisal plant were
used to make twine for sandals in South
America while the natives of Mexico used the
Yucca plant. [12][13]
While thong sandals were commonly worn, many
people in ancient times, such as the Egyptians ,
Hindus and Greeks, saw little need for footwear,
and most of the time, preferred being barefoot.
The Egyptians and Hindus made some use of
ornamental footwear, such as a soleless sandal
known as a "Cleopatra", [ citation needed ] which
did not provide any practical protection for the
foot. The ancient Greeks largely viewed footwear
as self-indulgent, unaesthetic and unnecessary.
Shoes were primarily worn in the theater, as a
means of increasing stature, and many preferred
to go barefoot. [14] Athletes in the Ancient
Olympic Games participated barefoot – and
naked. [15] Even the gods and heroes were
primarily depicted barefoot, the hoplite warriors
fought battles in bare feet and Alexander the
Great conquered his vast empire with barefoot
armies. The runners of Ancient Greece are also
believed to have run barefoot. Pheidippides , the
first marathoner, ran from Athens to Sparta in
less than 36 hours. [16] After the Battle of
Marathon, he ran straight from the battlefield to
Athens to inform the Athenians of the news. [17]
Footwear of Roman soldiers
(reconstruction)
The Romans, who eventually conquered the
Greeks and adopted many aspects of their
culture, did not adopt the Greek perception of
footwear and clothing. Roman clothing was seen
as a sign of power, and footwear was seen as a
necessity of living in a civilized world, although
the slaves and paupers usually went
barefoot. [14] Roman soldiers were issued with
chiral (left and right shoe different) footwear. [18]
There are references to shoes being worn in the
Bible. [19]
Middle Ages and Early Modern period
A common casual shoe in the Pyrenees during
the Middle Ages was the espadrille. This is a
sandal with braided jute soles and a fabric upper
portion, and often includes fabric laces that tie
around the ankle. The term is French and comes
from the esparto grass. The shoe originated in
the Catalonian region of Spain as early as the
13th century, and was commonly worn by
peasants in the farming communities in the
area. [13]
Dutch pattens, ca. 1465. Excavated from
the archeological site of Walraversijde ,
near Ostend , Belgium
Many medieval shoes were made using the
turnshoe method of construction, in which the
upper was turned flesh side out, and was lasted
onto the sole and joined to the edge by a seam.
The shoe was then turned inside-out so that the
grain was outside. Some shoes were developed
with toggled flaps or drawstrings to tighten the
leather around the foot for a better fit. Surviving
medieval turnshoes often fit the foot closely,
with the right and left shoe being mirror
images. [20] Around 1500, the turnshoe method
was largely replaced by the welted rand method
(where the uppers are sewn to a much stiffer
sole and the shoe cannot be turned inside-
out). [21] The turnshoe method is still used for
some dance and specialty shoes.
By the 15th Century, pattens became popular by
both men and women in Europe . These are
commonly seen as the predecessor of the
modern high-heeled shoe, [22] while the poor and
lower classes in Europe, as well as slaves in the
New World, were barefoot. [14] In the 15th
century, the Crakow was fashionable in Europe .
This style of shoe is named because it is
thought to have originated in Kraków , the capital
of Poland. The style is characterized by the point
of the shoe, known as the "polaine", which often
was supported by a whalebone tied to the knee
to prevent the point getting in the way while
walking. [23] Also during the 15th century,
chopines were created in Turkey, and were
usually 7-8 inches (17.7-20.3 cm) high. These
shoes became popular in Venice and throughout
Europe, as a status symbol revealing wealth and
social standing. During the 16th century, royalty
started wearing high-heeled shoes to make them
look taller or larger than life, such as Catherine
de Medici or Mary I of England . By 1580, even
men wore them, and a person with authority or
wealth was often referred to as, "well-
heeled". [22]
Eventually the modern shoe, with a sewn-on
sole, was devised. Since the 17th century, most
leather shoes have used a sewn-on sole. This
remains the standard for finer-quality dress
shoes today. Until around 1800, welted rand
shoes were commonly made without
differentiation for the left or right foot. Such
shoes are now referred to as "straights". [24]
Only gradually did the modern foot-specific shoe
become standard.
Industrial era
A shoemaker in the Georgian era , from
The Book of English Trades, 1821.
Shoemaking became more commercialized in
the mid-18th century, as it expanded as a
cottage industry. Large warehouses began to
stock footwear, made by many small
manufacturers from the area.
Until the 19th century, shoemaking was a
traditional handicraft, but by the century's end,
the process had been almost completely
mechanized, with production occurring in large
factories. Despite the obvious economic gains of
mass-production , the factory system produced
shoes without the individual differentiation that
the traditional shoemaker was able to provide.
The first steps towards mechanisation were
taken during the Napoleonic Wars by the
engineer, Marc Brunel . He developed machinery
for the mass-production of boots for the soldiers
of the British Army. In 1812 he devised a
scheme for making nailed-boot-making
machinery that automatically fastened soles to
uppers by means of metallic pins or nails. [25]
With the support of the Duke of York, the shoes
were manufactured, and, due to their strength,
cheapness, and durability, were introduced for
the use of the army. In the same year, the use of
screws and staples was patented by Richard
Woodman . Brunel's system was described by Sir
Richard Phillips as a visitor to his factory in
Battersea as follows:
By the late 19th century, the
shoemaking industry had migrated to
the factory and was increasingly
mechanized. Pictured, the bottoming
room of the B. F. Spinney & Co. factory
in Lynn, Massachusetts, 1872.
"In another building I was shown his
manufactory of shoes, which, like the other, is
full of ingenuity, and, in regard to subdivision
of labour, brings this fabric on a level with
the oft-admired manufactory of pins. Every
step in it is effected by the most elegant and
precise machinery; while, as each operation is
performed by one hand, so each shoe passes
through twenty-five hands, who complete from
the hide, as supplied by the currier, a hundred
pairs of strong and well-finished shoes per
day. All the details are performed by the
ingenious application of the mechanic
powers; and all the parts are characterised by
precision, uniformity, and accuracy. As each
man performs but one step in the process,
which implies no knowledge of what is done
by those who go before or follow him, so the
persons employed are not shoemakers, but
wounded soldiers, who are able to learn their
respective duties in a few hours. The contract
at which these shoes are delivered to
Government is 6s. 6d. per pair, being at least
2s. less than what was paid previously for an
unequal and cobbled article." [26]
However, when the war ended in 1815, manual
labour became much cheaper, and the demand
for military equipment subsided. As a
consequence, Brunel's system was no longer
profitable and it soon ceased business. [25]
Similar exigencies at the time of the Crimean
War stimulated a renewed interest in methods of
mechanization and mass-production, which
proved longer lasting. [25] A shoemaker in
Leicester , Tomas Crick, patented the design for
a riveting machine in 1853. His machine used an
iron plate to push iron rivets into the sole. The
process greatly increased the speed and
efficiency of production. He also introduced the
use of steam-powered rolling-machines for
hardening leather and cutting-machines, in the
mid-1850s. [27]
Advertisement in an 1896 issue of
McClure's for "The Regal".
The sewing machine was introduced in 1846,
and provided an alternative method for the
mechanization of shoemaking. By the late
1850s, the industry was beginning to shift
towards the modern factory, mainly in the US
and areas of England. A shoe stitching machine
was invented by the American Lyman Blake in
1856 and perfected by 1864. Entering into
partnership with McKay, his device became
known as the McKay stitching machine and was
quickly adopted by manufacturers throughout
New England . [28] As bottlenecks opened up in
the production line due to these innovations,
more and more of the manufacturing stages,
such as pegging and finishing, became
automated. By the 1890s, the process of
mechanisation was largely complete.
On January 24, 1899, Humphrey O'Sullivan of
Lowell, Massachusetts , was awarded a patent
for a rubber heel for boots and shoes. [29]
Since the mid-20th Century, advances in rubber,
plastics, synthetic cloth, and industrial adhesives
have allowed manufacturers to create shoes that
stray considerably from traditional crafting
techniques. Leather, which had been the primary
material in earlier styles, has remained standard
in expensive dress shoes, but athletic shoes
often have little or no real leather. Soles, which
were once laboriously hand-stitched on, are now
more often machine stitched or simply glued on.
Many of these newer materials, such as rubber
and plastics, have made shoes less
biodegradable. It is estimated that most mass-
produced shoes require 1000 years to degrade
in a landfill . [30] In the late 2000s, some
shoemakers picked up on the issue and began
to produce shoes made entirely from degradable
materials , such as the Nike Considered. [31][32]
In 2007, the global shoe industry had an overall
market of $107.4 billion, in terms of revenue ,
and is expected to grow to $122.9 billion by the
end of 2012. Shoe manufacturers in the People's
Republic of China account for 63% of production,
40.5% of global exports and 55% of industry
revenue. However, many manufacturers in Europe
dominate the higher-priced, higher value-added
end of the market. [33]
Culture and folklore
See also: Tradition of removing shoes in
home
Haines Shoe House in Hallam,
Pennsylvania
As an integral part of human culture and
civilization, shoes have found their way into our
culture, folklore, and art. A popular 18th century
nursery rhyme is There was an Old Woman Who
Lived in a Shoe . This story tells about an old
woman living in a shoe with a lot of children. In
1948, Mahlon Haines, a shoe salesman in
Hallam, Pennsylvania, built an actual house
shaped like a work boot as a form of
advertisement. The Haines Shoe House was
rented to newlyweds and the elderly until his
death in 1962. Since then, it has served as an
ice cream parlor, a bed and breakfast , and a
museum . It still stands today and is a popular
roadside attraction. [34]
Shoes also play an important role in the fairy
tales Cinderella and The Red Shoes . In the movie
adaption of the children's book The Wonderful
Wizard of Oz, a pair of red ruby slippers play a
key role in the plot. The 1985 comedy The Man
with One Red Shoe features an eccentric man
wearing one normal business shoe and one red
shoe that becomes central to the plot.
Sports shoes in Hong Kong
Athletic sneaker collection has also existed as a
part of urban subculture in the United States for
several decades. [35] Recent decades have seen
this trend spread to European nations such as
the Czech Republic . [36] A Sneakerhead is a
person who owns multiple pairs of shoes as a
form of collection and fashion. A contributor to
the growth of sneaker collecting is the continued
worldwide popularity of the Air Jordan line of
sneakers designed by Nike for Basketball star
Michael Jordan .
In the Bible's Old Testament , the shoe is used to
symbolize something that is worthless or of little
value. In the New Testament , the act of
removing one's shoes symbolizes servitude.
Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples regarded the
act of removing their shoes as a mark of
reverence when approaching a sacred person or
place. [37] In the Book of Exodus, Moses was
instructed to remove his shoes before
approaching the burning bush:
Salt Crystal Shoes, art installation at the
Dead Sea by Israeli artist Sigalit Landau
The removal of the shoe also symbolizes the act
of giving up a legal right. In Hebrew custom, the
widow removed the shoe of her late husband's
brother to symbolize that he had abandoned his
duty. In Arab custom, the removal of one's shoe
also symbolized the dissolution of marriage. [37]
In Arab culture , showing the sole of one's shoe
is considered an insult, and to throw a shoe and
hit someone with it is considered an even
greater insult. Shoes are considered to be dirty
as they frequently touch the ground, and are
associated with the lowest part of the body —
the foot . As such, shoes are forbidden in
mosques , and it is also considered unmannerly
to cross the legs and display the soles of one's
shoes to someone when talking to them. This
insult was demonstrated in Iraq, first when
Saddam Hussein 's statue was toppled in 2003,
Iraqis gathered around it and struck the statue
with their shoes. [38] Secondly, in 2008, United
States President George W. Bush had a shoe
thrown at him by a journalist as a statement
against the war that was brought to Iraq and the
lives that it has cost. [39] More generally, shoe-
throwing or shoeing, showing the sole of one's
shoe or using shoes to insult are forms of
protest in many parts of the world. Incidents
where shoes were thrown at political figures have
taken place in Australia , India, Ireland , Taiwan ,
Hong Kong , Pakistan , the United Kingdom , the
United States , and most notably the Arab
world . [40][41]
Empty shoes may also symbolize death. In
Greek culture, empty shoes are the equivalent of
the American funeral wreath. For example, empty
shoes placed outside of a Greek home would tell
others that the family's son has died in
battle. [42] At an observation memorializing the
10th anniversary of the September 11 attacks,
3,000 pairs of empty shoes were used to
recognize those killed. [43] The Shoes on the
Danube Bank is a memorial in Budapest,
Hungary . Conceived by film director Can Togay ,
he created it on the east bank of the Danube
River with sculptor Gyula Pauer to honor the
Jews who were killed by fascist Arrow Cross
militiamen in Budapest during World War II . They
were ordered to take off their shoes, and were
shot at the edge of the water so that their
bodies fell into the river and were carried away.
The memorial represents their shoes left behind
on the bank.
Construction
See also: Shoe insert and Arch support
Diagram of a typical dress shoe. Note that the
area labeled as the "Lace guard" is sometimes
considered part of the quarter and sometimes
part of the vamp.
The basic anatomy of a shoe is recognizable,
regardless of the specific style of footwear.
Play media
A shoemaker making turnshoes at the
Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum
All shoes have a sole, which is the bottom of a
shoe, in contact with the ground. Soles can be
made from a variety of materials, although most
modern shoes have soles made from natural
rubber , polyurethane , or polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
compounds. [44] Soles can be simple — a single
material in a single layer — or they can be
complex, with multiple structures or layers and
materials. When various layers are used, soles
may consist of an insole, midsole, and an
outsole. [45]
The insole is the interior bottom of a shoe,
which sits directly beneath the foot under the
footbed (also known as sock liner). The purpose
of insole is to attach to the lasting margin of the
upper, which is wrapped around the last during
the closing of the shoe during the lasting
operation. Insoles are usually made of cellulosic
paper board or synthetic non woven insole
board. Many shoes have removable and
replaceable footbeds. Extra cushioning is often
added for comfort (to control the shape,
moisture, or smell of the shoe) or health reasons
(to help deal with differences in the natural
shape of the foot or positioning of the foot
during standing or walking). [45]
The outsole is the layer in direct contact with the
ground. Dress shoes often have leather or resin
rubber outsoles; casual or work-oriented shoes
have outsoles made of natural rubber or a
synthetic material like polyurethane. The outsole
may comprise a single piece, or may be an
assembly of separate pieces, often of different
materials. On some shoes, the heel of the sole
has a rubber plate for durability and traction,
while the front is leather for style. Specialized
shoes will often have modifications on this
design: athletic or so called cleated shoes like
soccer, rugby, baseball and golf shoes have
spikes embedded in the outsole to improve
traction. [45]
The midsole is the layer in between the outsole
and the insole, typically there for shock
absorption. Some types of shoes, like running
shoes, have additional material for shock
absorption, usually beneath the heel of the foot,
where one puts the most pressure down. Some
shoes may not have a midsole at all. [45]
The heel is the bottom rear part of a shoe. Its
function is to support the heel of the foot. They
are often made of the same material as the sole
of the shoe. This part can be high for fashion or
to make the person look taller, or flat for a more
practical and comfortable use. [45] On some
shoes the inner forward point of the heel is
chiselled off, a feature known as a "gentleman's
corner". This piece of design is intended to
alleviate the problem of the points catching the
bottom of trousers and was first observed in the
1930s. [46] A heel is the projection at the back
of a shoe which rests below the heel bone . The
shoe heel is used to improve the balance of the
shoe, increase the height of the wearer, alter
posture or other decorative purposes. Sometimes
raised, the high heel is common to a form of
shoe often worn by women, but sometimes by
men too. See also stiletto heel.
The upper helps hold the shoe onto the foot. In
the simplest cases, such as sandals or flip-
flops, this may be nothing more than a few
straps for holding the sole in place. Closed
footwear, such as boots, trainers and most
men's shoes, will have a more complex upper.
This part is often decorated or is made in a
certain style to look attractive. The upper is
connected to the sole by a strip of leather,
rubber, or plastic that is stitched between it and
the sole, known as a welt. [45]
Cutaway view of a typical shoe.
Most uppers have a mechanism, such as laces,
straps with buckles, zippers, elastic, velcro
straps, buttons, or snaps, for tightening the
upper on the foot. Uppers with laces usually
have a tongue that helps seal the laced opening
and protect the foot from abrasion by the laces.
Uppers with laces also have eyelets or hooks to
make it easier to tighten and loosen the laces
and to prevent the lace from tearing through the
upper material. An aglet is the protective
wrapping on the end of the lace.
The vamp is the front part of the shoe, starting
behind the toe, extending around the eyelets and
tongue and towards back part of the shoe.
The medial is the part of the shoe closest to a
person's center of symmetry, and the lateral is
on the opposite side, away from their center of
symmetry. This can be in reference to either the
outsole or the vamp. Most shoes have
shoelaces on the upper, connecting the medial
and lateral parts after one puts their shoes on
and aiding in keeping their shoes on their feet.
In 1968, Puma SE introduced the first pair of
sneakers with Velcro straps in lieu of shoelaces,
and these became popular by the 1980s,
especially among children and the elderly. [47]
[48]
The toe box is the part that covers and protects
the toes. People with toe deformities, or
individuals who experience toe swelling (such as
long distance runners ) usually require a larger
toe box. [49]
Types
There are a wide variety of different types of
shoes. Most types of shoes are designed for
specific activities. For example, boots are
typically designed for work or heavy outdoor use.
Athletic shoes are designed for particular sports
such as running, walking, or other sports. Some
shoes are designed to be worn at more formal
occasions, and others are designed for casual
wear. There are also a wide variety of shoes
designed for different types of dancing.
Orthopedic shoes are special types of footwear
designed for individuals with particular foot
problems or special needs. Other animals, such
as dogs and horses , may also wear special
shoes to protect their feet as well.
Depending on the activity for which they are
designed, some types of footwear may fit into
multiple categories. For example, Cowboy boots
are considered boots, but may also be worn in
more formal occasions and used as dress
shoes. Hiking boots incorporate many of the
protective features of boots, but also provide the
extra flexibility and comfort of many athletic
shoes. Flip-flops are considered casual footwear,
but have also been worn in formal occasions,
such as visits to the White House . [50][51]
Athletic
A pair of athletic running shoes
Athletic shoes are specifically designed to be
worn for participating in various sports. Since
friction between the foot and the ground is an
important force in most sports, modern athletic
shoes are designed to maximize this force, and
materials, such as rubber, are used. Although, for
some activities such as dancing or bowling,
sliding is desirable, so shoes designed for these
activities often have lower coefficients of
friction. [52] The earliest athletic shoes date back
to the mid 19th century were track spikes —
leather shoes with metal cleats on the soles to
provide increased friction during running. They
were developed by J.W. Foster & Sons, which
later become known as Reebok. By the end of
the 19th century, Spalding also manufactured
these shoes as well. Adidas started selling
shoes with track spikes in them for running and
soccer in 1925. Spikes were eventually added to
shoes for baseball and American football in the
20th century. [13] Golfers also use shoes with
small metal spikes on their soles to prevent
slipping during their swing. [53]
The earliest rubber-soled athletic shoes date
back to 1876 in the United Kingdom , when the
New Liverpool Rubber Company made plimsolls ,
or sandshoes, designed for the sport of croquet.
Similar rubber-soled shoes were made in 1892 in
the United States by Humphrey O'Sullivan, based
on Charles Goodyear 's technology. The United
States Rubber Company was founded the same
year and produced rubber-soled and heeled
shoes under a variety of brand names, which
were later consolidated in 1916 under the name,
Keds. These shoes became known as,
"sneakers", because the rubber sole allowed the
wearer to sneak up on another person. In 1964,
the founding of Nike by Phil Knight and Bill
Bowerman of the University of Oregon introduced
many new improvements common in modern
running shoes, such as rubber waffle soles,
breathable nylon uppers, and cushioning in the
mid-sole and heel. During the 1970s, the
expertise of podiatrists also became important
in athletic shoe design, to implement new design
features based on how feet reacted to specific
actions, such as running, jumping, or side-to-
side movement. Athletic shoes for women were
also designed for their specific physiological
differences. [13]
A pair of Converse All-Stars
Shoes specific to the sport of basketball were
developed by Chuck Taylor , and are popularly
known as Chuck Taylor All-Stars . These shoes,
first sold in 1917, are double-layer canvas shoes
with rubber soles and toe caps, and a high heel
(known as a "high top") for added support. In
1969, Taylor was inducted into the Naismith
Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in recognition
of this development, and in the 1970s, other
shoe manufacturers, such as Nike, Adidas,
Reebok, and others began imitating this style of
athletic shoe. [54] In April 1985, Nike introduced
its own brand of basketball shoe which would
become popular in its own right, the Air Jordan ,
named after the then-rookie Chicago Bulls
basketball player, Michael Jordan . The Air
Jordan line of shoes sold $100 million in their
first year. [55]
As barefoot running became popular by the late
20th and early 21st century, many modern shoe
manufacturers have recently designed footwear
that mimic this experience, maintaining optimum
flexibility and natural walking while also
providing some degree of protection. Termed as
Minimalist shoes, their purpose is to allow one's
feet and legs to feel more subtly the impacts
and forces involved in running, allowing finer
adjustments in running style. [56] Some of these
shoes include the Vibram FiveFingers , [57] Nike
Free ,[58] and Saucony 's Kinvara and Hattori. [59]
[60] Mexican huaraches are also very simple
running shoes, similar to the shoes worn by the
Tarahumara people of northern Mexico, who are
known for their distance running abilities. [61]
Wrestling shoes are also very light and flexible
shoes that are designed to mimic bare feet while
providing additional traction and protection.
Many athletic shoes are designed with specific
features for specific activities. One of these
includes roller skates, which have metal or
plastic wheels on the bottom specific for the
sport of roller skating. Similarly, ice skates have
a metal blade attached to the bottom for
locomotion across ice . Skate shoes have also
been designed to provide a comfortable, flexible
and durable shoe for the sport of
skateboarding . [62] Climbing shoes are rubber-
soled, tight-fitting shoes designed to fit in the
small cracks and crevices for rock climbing .
Cycling shoes are similarly designed with rubber
soles and a tight fit, but also are equipped with
a metal or plastic cleat to interface with clipless
pedals , as well as a stiff sole to maximize
power transfer and support the foot. [63] Some
shoes are made specifically to improve a
person's ability to weight train . [64]
Boot
A pair of steel-toed safety boots
Main article: Boot
A boot is a special type of shoe which covers
the foot and the ankle and extends up the leg ,
sometimes as far as the knee or even the hip .
Most boots have a heel that is clearly
distinguishable from the rest of the sole , even if
the two are made of one piece. They are
typically made of leather or rubber, although they
may be made from a variety of different
materials. Boots are worn both for their
functionality — protecting the foot and leg from
water, snow, mud or hazards or providing
additional ankle support for strenuous
activities — as well as for reasons of style and
fashion .
Cowboy boots are a specific style of riding boot
which combines function with fashion. They
became popular among cowboys in the western
United States during the 19th century. Traditional
cowboy boots have a Cuban heel, rounded to
pointed toe, high shaft, and, traditionally, no
lacing. [65] They are normally made from
cowhide leather but may be made from more
exotic skins such as ostrich , anaconda , or
elephant skins. [66]
Hiking boots are designed to provide extra ankle
and arch support, as well as extra padding for
comfort during hiking. They are constructed to
provide comfort for miles of walking over rough
terrains, and protect the hiker's feet against
water, mud, rocks, and other wilderness
obstacles. These boots support the ankle to
avoid twisting but do not restrict the ankle's
movement too much. They are fairly stiff to
support the foot. A properly fitted boot and/or
friction-reducing patches applied to troublesome
areas ensures protection against blisters and
other discomforts associated with long hikes on
rugged terrain. [67]
During wet or snowy weather, snow boots are
worn to keep the foot warm and dry. They are
typically made of rubber or other water-resistant
material, have multiple layers of insulation, and
a high heel to keep snow out. [68] Boots may
also be attached to snowshoes to increase the
distribution of weight over a larger surface area
for walking in snow . Ski boots are a specialized
snow boot which are used in alpine or cross-
country skiing and designed to provide a way to
attach the skier to his/her skis using ski
bindings . The ski/boot/binding combination is
used to effectively transmit control inputs from
the skier's legs to the snow. Ice skates are
another specialized boot with a metal blade
attached to the bottom which is used to propel
the wearer across a sheet of ice. [69] Inline
skates are similar to ice skates but with a set of
three to four wheels in lieu of the blade, which
are designed to mimic ice skating on solid
surfaces such as wood or concrete. [70]
Boots are designed to withstand heavy wear to
protect the wearer and provide good traction.
They are generally made from sturdy leather
uppers and non-leather outsoles. They may be
used for uniforms of the police or military , as
well as for protection in industrial settings such
as mining and construction . Protective features
may include steel-tipped toes and soles or ankle
guards. [71]
Dress and casual
Dress shoes are characterized by smooth and
supple leather uppers, leather soles, and narrow
sleek figure. Casual shoes are characterized by
sturdy leather uppers, non-leather outsoles, and
wide profile.
Some designs of dress shoes can be worn by
either gender. The majority of dress shoes have
an upper covering, commonly made of leather,
enclosing most of the lower foot, but not
covering the ankles. This upper part of the shoe
is often made without apertures or openings, but
may also be made with openings or even itself
consist of a series of straps, e.g. an open toe
featured in women's shoes. Shoes with uppers
made high to cover the ankles are also available;
a shoe with the upper rising above the ankle is
usually considered a boot but certain styles may
be referred to as high-topped shoes or high-
tops . Usually, a high-topped shoe is secured by
laces or zippers, although some styles have
elastic inserts to ease slipping the shoe on.
Men's
This male dress shoe, known as a derby
shoe , is distinguished by its open
lacing.
Men's shoes can be categorized by how they are
closed:
Oxfords (also referred as "Balmorals"): the
vamp has a V-shaped slit to which the laces
are attached; also known as "closed lacing".
The word "Oxford" is sometimes used by
American clothing companies to market shoes
that are not Balmorals, such as Blüchers.
Derby shoe : the laces are tied to two pieces
of leather independently attached to the vamp;
also known as "open lacing" and is a step
down in dressiness. If the laces are not
independently attached to the vamp, the shoe
is known as a blucher shoe . This name is, in
American English, often used about derbys.
Monk-straps : a buckle and strap instead of
lacing
Slip-ons : There are no lacings or fastenings.
The popular loafers are part of this category,
as well as less popular styles, such as
elastic-sided shoes.
Men's shoes can also be decorated in various
ways:
Plain-toes: have a sleek appearance and no
extra decorations on the vamp.
Cap-toes: has an extra layer of leather that
"caps" the toe.
Brogues (American: wing-tips): The toe of the
shoe is covered with a perforated panel, the
wing-tip, which extends down either side of
the shoe. Brogues can be found in both
balmoral and blucher styles, but are
considered slightly less formal.
Formal high-end men's shoes are manufactured
by several companies around the world, most
notably in England, France, Italy, and America.
Notable British brands include: Church's English
Shoes (est. 1873), John Lobb Bootmaker (est.
1849), Edward Green Shoes (est. 1890), and
Crockett & Jones (est. 1879). Both John Lobb
and Edward Green offer bespoke products. In
between the world wars, men's footwear
received significant innovation and design, led by
cobblers and cordwainers in London's West
End. [72] The most notable [ according to whom? ]
French product is made by J.M. Weston. Armani
of Italy was a major influence on men's shoe
design in the 1960s–1980s until they returned
to the larger proportions of its forebears, the
welt-constructed Anglo-American dress shoe
originally created in Edwardian England . Another
well-known Italian company is Salvatore
Ferragamo Italia S.p.A. . The remaining
elite [ clarification needed] American companies
are Allen Edmonds and Alden Shoe Company.
Alden, located in New England, specializes in
genuine shell cordovan leather from the only
remaining horse tannery in America
(Chicago) [73] and is completely manufactured in
America, whereas Allen Edmonds, of Wisconsin,
is a larger company that outsources some of its
production. [74]
Women's
High heel sandals
Women's high heel pump
There is a large variety of shoes available for
women, in addition to most of the men's styles
being more accepted as unisex. Some broad
categories are:
High-heeled footwear is footwear that raises
the heels, typically 2 inches (5 cm) or more
above the toes, commonly worn by women
for formal occasions or social outings.
Variants include kitten heels (typically
1½-2 inches high) and stiletto heels (with a
very narrow heel post) and wedge heels (with
a wedge-shaped sole rather than a heel post).
Mules are shoes or slippers with no fitting
around the heel (i.e. they are backless)
Slingbacks are shoes which are secured by a
strap behind the heel, rather than over the top
of the foot.
Ballet flats , known in the UK as ballerinas,
ballet pumps or skimmers, are shoes with a
very low heel and a relatively short vamp,
exposing much of the instep. They are
popular for warm-weather wear, and may be
seen as more comfortable than shoes with a
higher heel.
Court shoes, known in the United States as
pumps, are typically high-heeled, slip-on
dress shoes.
Unisex
Clog
Platform shoe: shoe with very thick soles and
heels
Sandals: open shoes consisting of a sole and
various straps, leaving much of the foot
exposed to air. They are thus popular for
warm-weather wear, because they let the foot
be cooler than a closed-toed shoe would.
Saddle shoe: leather shoe with a contrasting
saddle-shaped band over the instep, typically
white uppers with black "saddle".
Slip-on shoe : a dress or casual shoe without
shoelaces or fasteners; often with tassels,
buckles, or coin-holders (penny loafers).
Boat shoes, also known as "deck shoes":
similar to a loafer, but more casual. Laces
are usually simple leather with no frills.
Typically made of leather and featuring a soft
white sole to avoid marring or scratching a
boat deck. The first boat shoe was invented
in 1935 by Paul A. Sperry .
Slippers : For indoor use, commonly worn with
pajamas.
Dance
A wide variety of footwear is used by dancers.
The choice of dance shoe type depends on the
style of dance that is to be performed and, in
many cases, the characteristics of the surface
that will be danced on.
Pointe shoes are designed for ballet dancing.
These have a toe box that is stiffened with
glue and a hardened sole so the dancer can
stand on the tips of their toes. They are
secured by elastic straps and ribbons that are
tied to the dancer's ankles.
Ballet shoes are soft, pliable shoes made of
canvas or leather, with either continuous or
two-part sole (also called split-sole ), used for
ballet dancing. The sole is typically made of
leather, with thicker material under the ball
and heel of the foot, and thinner and thus
more flexible material under the arch so that
the foot can be easily pointed. They are
typically secured by elastics across the top of
the foot.
Ghillies are soft shoes that are used in Irish
dance, Scottish country dance, and highland
dance.
Jazz shoes typically have a two-part
rubberized sole (also called split-sole ) to
provide both flexibility and traction, and a
short heel. They are secured to the foot by
laces or elastic inserts.
Tango and Flamenco shoes are used for
tango or flamenco dancing.
Ballroom shoes fall into two categories:
Ballroom and Latin American. Both are
characterised by suede soles. Men's ballroom
shoes are typically lace-ups with one-inch
heels and patent leather uppers. Ladies'
ballroom shoes are typically court shoes with
two-inch heels, made of fabric that can be
colored to match the dancer's dress. In
contrast to the low Ballroom heel, which
evenly distributes weight across the foot,
Latin American shoes have higher heels
designed to shift weight onto the toes. Latin
shoes are also more flexible than ballroom
shoes. Men's Latin shoes typically have 1.5-
to 2-inch high, shaped heels, while Ladies'
Latin shoes have 2,5-inch to 3-inch heels.
Ladies shoes are typically open-toed and
strapped.
Dance sneakers are lightweight sneakers with
reinforced rubber toes that allows dancers to
briefly stand on their toes. These are known
by various trademarked names, such as
dansneakers.
Foot thongs are slip-on, partial foot covers
that cover the ball of the dancer's foot so as
to reduce friction while executing turns, thus
making it easier to perform turns and also
protecting the foot from skin abrasions. From
a distance, flesh colored foot thongs give a
dancer the appearance of having bare feet.
They are known by various names depending
on the manufacturer, including dance paws,
foot undies, and foot paws.
Tap shoes have metal plates mounted to the
bottoms of the toe and heel. The metal
plates, which are known as taps , make a loud
sound when struck against a hard
performance surface. Tap shoes, which are
used in tap dancing, may be made from any
style of shoe to which taps can be attached.
Character shoes are leather shoes with one- to
three-inch heels, usually with one or more
straps across the instep to secure it to the
foot. They may be soft-soled (suede) or hard-
soled. They may be converted to tap shoes
by attaching taps.
Pointe shoes
Ballet shoes
Jazz shoes. This style is frequently worn by
acro dancers
A foot thong , viewed from the bottom
Ghillies
Ladies' ballroom shoes
Men's ballroom shoes
Tap shoes
Orthopedic
Orthopedic shoes are specially-designed
footwear to relieve discomfort associated with
many foot and ankle disorders, such as blisters,
bunions, calluses and corns, hammer toes ,
plantar fasciitis, or heel spurs. They may also be
worn by individuals with diabetes or people with
unequal leg length . These shoes typically have a
low heel, tend to be wide with a particularly wide
toe box, and have a firm heel to provide extra
support. Some may also have a removable
insole, or orthotic, to provide extra arch
support. [13]
See also: Diabetic shoe
Measures and sizes
Main article: Shoe size
World's largest pair of shoes, Riverbank
Center, Philippines – 5.29 metres (17.4
ft) long and 2.37 metres (7 ft 9) in
wide, equivalent to a French shoe size
of 75.
The measure of a foot for a shoe is from the
heel to the longest toe. Shoe size is an
alphanumerical indication of the fitting size of a
shoe for a person. Often it just consists of a
number indicating the length because many
shoemakers only provide a standard width for
economic reasons. There are several different
shoe-size systems that are used worldwide.
These systems differ in what they measure, what
unit of measurement they use, and where the
size 0 (or 1) is positioned. Only a few systems
also take the width of the feet into account.
Some regions use different shoe-size systems
for different types of shoes (e.g., men's,
women's, children's, sport, or safety shoes).
Units for shoe sizes vary widely around the
world. European sizes are measured in Paris
Points , which are worth two-thirds of a
centimeter. The UK and American units are
approximately one-quarter of an inch, starting at
8¼ inches. Men's and women's shoe sizes often
have different scales. Shoes size is often
measured using a Brannock Device, which can
determine both the width and length size values
of the foot.
Accessories
Foam tap — a small foam pad placed under
the ball of the foot to push the foot up and
back if the shoe is too loose.
Heel grip — used to prevent the shoe from
slipping on the heel if the fit is not perfect
Overshoes or galoshes — a rubber covering
placed over shoes for rain and snow
protection.
Shoe bag — a bag that protects shoes against
damage when they are not being worn.
Shoe brush and polishing cloth: used to apply
polish to shoes.
Shoe insert , insole or inner sole — orthopedic
or regular insert of various materials for
cushioning, improved fit, reduced abrasion or
to keep shoe fresh and increase its durability.
These include padding and inner linings.
Inserts may also be used to correct foot
problems.
Shoe polish — a waxy material spread on
shoes to improve appearance and glossiness,
and provide protection.
Shoe stretcher — a tool for making a shoe
longer or wider or for reducing discomfort in
areas of a shoe.
Shoe tree — placed inside the shoe when user
is not wearing it, to help maintain the shoe's
shape.
Shoehorn — can be used to insert a foot into
a shoe by keeping the shoe open and
providing a smooth surface for the foot to
slide upon.
Shoelaces — a system used to secure shoes.
Snow shoe — a wooden or leather piece that
increases the area of ground covered by the
shoe.
See also
Foot binding
List of shoe companies
List of shoe styles
Locomotor effects of shoes
Runner's toe, injury from malfitting shoes
Shoe tossing
Trousers
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Bibliography
Bergstein, Rachelle (2012). Women From the
Ankle Down – The Story of Shoes and How
They Define Us (Hardback). New York: Harper
Collins. pp. 284 pages.
ISBN 978-0-06-196961-4 .
History of Footwear in Norway, Sweden and
Finland: prehistory to 1950,
ISBN 91-7402-323-3
Patrick Cox: Wit, Irony, and Footwear , Tamasin
Doe (1998) ISBN 0-8230-1148-8
A Century of Shoes: Icons of Style in the 20th
Century , Angela Pattison ISBN 0-7858-0835-3
Further reading
Design Museum Fifty Shoes that Changed the
World. London: Conran Octopus, 2009
ISBN 978-1-84091-539-6
External links
Shoes
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia
Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
All About Shoes —the Bata Shoe Museum 's
online exhibits on the history and variety of
footwear
Footwear History
International Shoe Size Conversion Charts ,
from i18nguy's website, offers more
information.
Shoe Care
The Political History of Shoes
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