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The philosophy of education examines the
goals, forms, methods, and meaning of
education. The term is used to describe both
fundamental philosophical analysis of these
themes and the description or analysis of
particular pedagogical approaches.
Considerations of how the profession relates to
broader philosophical or sociocultural contexts
may be included. [1][2][3] The philosophy of
education thus overlaps with the field of
education and applied philosophy .
For example, philosophers of education study
what constitutes upbringing and education, the
values and norms revealed through upbringing
and educational practices, the limits and
legitimization of education as an academic
discipline, and the relation between educational
theory and practice.
In universities, the philosophy of education
usually forms part of departments or colleges of
education. [4][5][6][1]
Philosophy of education
Plato
Inscribed herma of Plato. ( Berlin, Altes
Museum ).
Main article: Plato
Date: 424/423 BC – 348/347 BC
Plato's educational philosophy was grounded in
a vision of an ideal 'Republic wherein the
individual was best served by being subordinated
to a just society due to a shift in emphasis that
departed from his predecessors. The mind and
body were to be considered separate entities. In
the dialogues of Phaedo , written in his "middle
period" (360 B.C.E.) Plato expressed his
distinctive views about the nature of knowledge,
reality, and the soul: [7]
On this premise, Plato advocated removing
children from their mothers' care and raising
them as wards of the state , with great care being
taken to differentiate children suitable to the
various castes, the highest receiving the most
education, so that they could act as guardians of
the city and care for the less able. Education
would be holistic, including facts, skills, physical
discipline, and music and art, which he
considered the highest form of endeavor.
Plato believed that talent was distributed non-
genetically and thus must be found in children
born in any social class . He built on this by
insisting that those suitably gifted were to be
trained by the state so that they might be
qualified to assume the role of a ruling class .
What this established was essentially a system
of selective public education premised on the
assumption that an educated minority of the
population were, by virtue of their education (and
inborn educability), sufficient for healthy
governance.
Plato's writings contain some of the following
ideas: Elementary education would be confined
to the guardian class till the age of 18, followed
by two years of compulsory military training and
then by higher education for those who qualified.
While elementary education made the soul
responsive to the environment, higher education
helped the soul to search for truth which
illuminated it. Both boys and girls receive the
same kind of education. Elementary education
consisted of music and gymnastics, designed to
train and blend gentle and fierce qualities in the
individual and create a harmonious
person. [ citation needed]
At the age of 20, a selection was made. The
best students would take an advanced course in
mathematics , geometry, astronomy and
harmonics. The first course in the scheme of
higher education would last for ten years. It
would be for those who had a flair for science.
At the age of 30 there would be another
selection; those who qualified would study
dialectics and metaphysics , logic and
philosophy for the next five years. After
accepting junior positions in the army for 15
years, a man would have completed his
theoretical and practical education by the age of
50.
Immanuel Kant
Main article: Immanuel Kant
Date: 1724–1804
Immanuel Kant believed that education differs
from training in that the former involves thinking
whereas the latter does not. In addition to
educating reason, of central importance to him
was the development of character and teaching
of moral maxims. Kant was a proponent of
public education and of learning by doing. [10]
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Main article: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Date: 1770–1831
Realism
Aristotle
Bust of Aristotle. Roman copy after a
Greek bronze original by Lysippos from
330 B.C.
Main article: Aristotle
Date: 384 BC – 322 BC
Only fragments of Aristotle's treatise On
Education are still in existence. We thus know of
his philosophy of education primarily through
brief passages in other works. Aristotle
considered human nature, habit and reason to be
equally important forces to be cultivated in
education. [2] Thus, for example, he considered
repetition to be a key tool to develop good
habits. The teacher was to lead the student
systematically; this differs, for example, from
Socrates' emphasis on questioning his listeners
to bring out their own ideas (though the
comparison is perhaps incongruous since
Socrates was dealing with adults).
Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the
theoretical and practical aspects of subjects
taught. Subjects he explicitly mentions as being
important included reading, writing and
mathematics; music; physical education;
literature and history; and a wide range of
sciences. He also mentioned the importance of
play.
One of education's primary missions for
Aristotle, perhaps its most important, was to
produce good and virtuous citizens for the polis .
All who have meditated on the art of governing
mankind have been convinced that the fate of
empires depends on the education of youth. [11]
Avicenna
Main article: Avicenna
Date: 980 AD – 1037 AD
In the medieval Islamic world , an elementary
school was known as a maktab , which dates
back to at least the 10th century. Like
madrasahs (which referred to higher education),
a maktab was often attached to a mosque . In
the 11th century, Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna in
the West), wrote a chapter dealing with the
maktab entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the
Training and Upbringing of Children", as a guide
to teachers working at maktab schools. He wrote
that children can learn better if taught in classes
instead of individual tuition from private tutors ,
and he gave a number of reasons for why this is
the case, citing the value of competition and
emulation among pupils as well as the
usefulness of group discussions and debates .
Ibn Sina described the curriculum of a maktab
school in some detail, describing the curricula
for two stages of education in a maktab
school. [12]
Ibn Sina wrote that children should be sent to a
maktab school from the age of 6 and be taught
primary education until they reach the age of 14.
During which time, he wrote that they should be
taught the Qur'an , Islamic metaphysics ,
language , literature , Islamic ethics, and manual
skills (which could refer to a variety of practical
skills). [12]
Ibn Sina refers to the secondary education stage
of maktab schooling as the period of
specialization, when pupils should begin to
acquire manual skills, regardless of their social
status. He writes that children after the age of 14
should be given a choice to choose and
specialize in subjects they have an interest in,
whether it was reading, manual skills, literature,
preaching, medicine, geometry, trade and
commerce, craftsmanship, or any other subject
or profession they would be interested in
pursuing for a future career. He wrote that this
was a transitional stage and that there needs to
be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils
graduate, as the student's emotional
development and chosen subjects need to be
taken into account. [13]
The empiricist theory of 'tabula rasa ' was also
developed by Ibn Sina. He argued that the
"human intellect at birth is rather like a tabula
rasa , a pure potentiality that is actualized through
education and comes to know" and that
knowledge is attained through " empirical
familiarity with objects in this world from which
one abstracts universal concepts" which is
developed through a "syllogistic method of
reasoning; observations lead to prepositional
statements, which when compounded lead to
further abstract concepts." He further argued that
the intellect itself "possesses levels of
development from the material intellect ( al-‘aql
al-hayulani ), that potentiality that can acquire
knowledge to the active intellect ( al-‘aql al-fa‘il ),
the state of the human intellect in conjunction
with the perfect source of knowledge." [14]
Ibn Tufail
Main article: Ibn Tufail
Date: c. 1105 – 1185
In the 12th century, the Andalusian - Arabian
philosopher and novelist Ibn Tufail (known as
"Abubacer" or "Ebn Tophail" in the West)
demonstrated the empiricist theory of 'tabula
rasa ' as a thought experiment through his Arabic
philosophical novel , Hayy ibn Yaqzan , in which
he depicted the development of the mind of a
feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult,
in complete isolation from society" on a desert
island, through experience alone. Some scholars
have argued that the Latin translation of his
philosophical novel , Philosophus Autodidactus,
published by Edward Pococke the Younger in
1671, had an influence on John Locke's
formulation of tabula rasa in "An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding ". [15]
John Locke
Main article: John Locke
See also: Some Thoughts Concerning
Education , Of the Conduct of the
Understanding , and Essay concerning Human
Understanding
Date: 1632–1704
In Some Thoughts Concerning Education and Of
the Conduct of the Understanding Locke
composed an outline on how to educate this
mind in order to increase its powers and activity:
Locke expressed the belief that education
maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that
the mind is an "empty cabinet", with the
statement, "I think I may say that of all the men
we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are,
good or evil, useful or not, by their
education." [18]
Locke also wrote that "the little and almost
insensible impressions on our tender infancies
have very important and lasting
consequences." [19] He argued that the
" associations of ideas" that one makes when
young are more important than those made later
because they are the foundation of the self: they
are, put differently, what first mark the tabula
rasa . In his Essay , in which is introduced both of
these concepts, Locke warns against, for
example, letting "a foolish maid" convince a
child that "goblins and sprites" are associated
with the night for "darkness shall ever afterwards
bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall
be so joined, that he can no more bear the one
than the other." [20]
"Associationism", as this theory would come to
be called, exerted a powerful influence over
eighteenth-century thought, particularly
educational theory , as nearly every educational
writer warned parents not to allow their children
to develop negative associations. It also led to
the development of psychology and other new
disciplines with David Hartley 's attempt to
discover a biological mechanism for
associationism in his Observations on Man
( 1749).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau by Maurice
Quentin de La Tour
Main article: Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Date: 1712–1778
Rousseau, though he paid his respects to Plato's
philosophy, rejected it as impractical due to the
decayed state of society. [21] Rousseau also had
a different theory of human development; where
Plato held that people are born with skills
appropriate to different castes (though he did not
regard these skills as being inherited), Rousseau
held that there was one developmental process
common to all humans. This was an intrinsic,
natural process, of which the primary behavioral
manifestation was curiosity. This differed from
Locke's 'tabula rasa' in that it was an active
process deriving from the child's nature, which
drove the child to learn and adapt to its
surroundings.
Rousseau wrote in his book Emile that all
children are perfectly designed organisms, ready
to learn from their surroundings so as to grow
into virtuous adults, but due to the malign
influence of corrupt society, they often fail to do
so. [22] Rousseau advocated an educational
method which consisted of removing the child
from society—for example, to a country home—
and alternately conditioning him through changes
to his environment and setting traps and puzzles
for him to solve or overcome.
Rousseau was unusual in that he recognized and
addressed the potential of a problem of
legitimation for teaching. [23] He advocated that
adults always be truthful with children, and in
particular that they never hide the fact that the
basis for their authority in teaching was purely
one of physical coercion: "I'm bigger than you."
Once children reached the age of reason, at
about 12, they would be engaged as free
individuals in the ongoing process of their own.
He once said that a child should grow up
without adult interference and that the child must
be guided to suffer from the experience of the
natural consequences of his own acts or
behaviour. When he experiences the
consequences of his own acts, he advises
himself.
"Rousseau divides development into five stages
(a book is devoted to each). Education in the
first two stages seeks to the senses: only when
Émile is about 12 does the tutor begin to work
to develop his mind. Later, in Book 5, Rousseau
examines the education of Sophie (whom Émile
is to marry). [24] Here he sets out what he sees
as the essential differences that flow from sex.
'The man should be strong and active; the
woman should be weak and passive' (Everyman
edn: 322). From this difference comes a
contrasting education. They are not to be
brought up in ignorance and kept to housework:
Nature means them to think, to will, to love to
cultivate their minds as well as their persons;
she puts these weapons in their hands to make
up for their lack of strength and to enable them
to direct the strength of men. They should learn
many things, but only such things as
suitable' (Everyman edn.: 327)." Émile
Mortimer Jerome Adler
Main article: Mortimer Jerome Adler
Date: 1902–2001
Mortimer Jerome Adler was an American
philosopher , educator, and popular author. As a
philosopher he worked within the Aristotelian and
Thomistic traditions. He lived for the longest
stretches in New York City, Chicago , San
Francisco, and San Mateo, California. He worked
for Columbia University , the University of
Chicago , Encyclopædia Britannica , and Adler's
own Institute for Philosophical Research. Adler
was married twice and had four children. [25]
Adler was a proponent of educational
perennialism .
Harry S. Broudy
Main article: Harry Broudy
Date: 1905–1998
Broudy's philosophical views were based on the
tradition of classical realism, dealing with truth,
goodness, and beauty. However he was also
influenced by the modern philosophy
existentialism and instrumentalism. In his
textbook Building a Philosophy of Education he
has two major ideas that are the main points to
his philosophical outlook: The first is truth and
the second is universal structures to be found in
humanity's struggle for education and the good
life. Broudy also studied issues on society's
demands on school. He thought education would
be a link to unify the diverse society and urged
the society to put more trust and a commitment
to the schools and a good education.
Scholasticism
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas by Carlo Crivelli , 1476)
Main article: Thomas Aquinas
Date: c. 1225 – 1274
See Religious perennialism .
John Milton
Main article: John Milton
See also: Of Education
Date: 1608–1674
The objective of medieval education was an
overtly religious one, primarily concerned with
uncovering transcendental truths that would lead
a person back to God through a life of moral
and religious choice (Kreeft 15). The vehicle by
which these truths were uncovered was dialectic:
Pragmatism
John Dewey
Main article: John Dewey
Date: 1859–1952
John Dewey in 1902.
In Democracy and Education: An Introduction to
the Philosophy of Education, Dewey stated that
education, in its broadest sense, is the means of
the "social continuity of life" given the "primary
ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each
one of the constituent members in a social
group". Education is therefore a necessity, for
"the life of the group goes on." [26] Dewey was a
proponent of Educational Progressivism and was
a relentless campaigner for reform of education,
pointing out that the authoritarian, strict, pre-
ordained knowledge approach of modern
traditional education was too concerned with
delivering knowledge, and not enough with
understanding students' actual experiences. [27]
William James
Main article: William James
Date: 1842–1910
William Heard Kilpatrick
Main article: William Heard Kilpatrick
Date: 1871–1965
William Heard Kilpatrick was a US American
philosopher of education and a colleague and a
successor of John Dewey . He was a major figure
in the progressive education movement of the
early 20th century. Kilpatrick developed the
Project Method for early childhood education,
which was a form of Progressive Education
organized curriculum and classroom activities
around a subject's central theme. He believed
that the role of a teacher should be that of a
"guide" as opposed to an authoritarian figure.
Kilpatrick believed that children should direct
their own learning according to their interests
and should be allowed to explore their
environment, experiencing their learning through
the natural senses. [28] Proponents of
Progressive Education and the Project Method
reject traditional schooling that focuses on
memorization, rote learning, strictly organized
classrooms (desks in rows; students always
seated), and typical forms of assessment.
Nel Noddings
Main article: Nel Noddings
Date: 1929–
Noddings' first sole-authored book Caring: A
Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education
(1984) followed close on the 1982 publication
of Carol Gilligan’s ground-breaking work in the
ethics of care In a Different Voice. While her
work on ethics continued, with the publication of
Women and Evil (1989) and later works on moral
education, most of her later publications have
been on the philosophy of education and
educational theory . Her most significant works in
these areas have been Educating for Intelligent
Belief or Unbelief (1993) and Philosophy of
Education (1995).
Noddings' contribution to education philosophy
centers around the ethic of care . Her belief was
that a caring teacher-student relationship will
result in the teacher designing a differentiated
curriculum for each student, and that this
curriculum would be based around the students'
particular interests and needs. The teacher's
claim to care must not be based on a one time
virtuous decision but an ongoing interest in the
students' welfare.
Richard Rorty
Main article: Richard Rorty
Date: 1931–2007
Analytic philosophy
G.E Moore (1873–1858)
Main article: G.E Moore
Bertrand Russell (1872–1970)
Main article: Bertrand Russell
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925)
Main article: Gottlob Frege
Richard Stanley Peters (1919–2011)
Main article: Richard Stanley Peters
Date: 1919–
Existentialist
The existentialist sees the world as one's
personal subjectivity, where goodness, truth, and
reality are individually defined. Reality is a world
of existing, truth subjectively chosen, and
goodness a matter of freedom. The subject
matter of existentialist classrooms should be a
matter of personal choice. Teachers view the
individual as an entity within a social context in
which the learner must confront others' views to
clarify his or her own. Character development
emphasizes individual responsibility for
decisions. Real answers come from within the
individual, not from outside authority. Examining
life through authentic thinking involves students
in genuine learning experiences. Existentialists
are opposed to thinking about students as
objects to be measured, tracked, or
standardized. Such educators want the
educational experience to focus on creating
opportunities for self-direction and self-
actualization. They start with the student, rather
than on curriculum content. [29]
Critical theory
Paulo Freire
Paulo Freire
Main article: Paulo Freire
Date: 1921–1997
A Brazilian philosopher and educator committed
to the cause of educating the impoverished
peasants of his nation and collaborating with
them in the pursuit of their liberation from what
he regarded as "oppression," Freire is best
known for his attack on what he called the
"banking concept of education," in which the
student was viewed as an empty account to be
filled by the teacher. Freire also suggests that a
deep reciprocity be inserted into our notions of
teacher and student; he comes close to
suggesting that the teacher-student dichotomy
be completely abolished, instead promoting the
roles of the participants in the classroom as the
teacher-student (a teacher who learns) and the
student-teacher (a learner who teaches). In its
early, strong form this kind of classroom has
sometimes been criticized [ by whom? ] on the
grounds that it can mask rather than overcome
the teacher's authority.
Aspects of the Freirian philosophy have been
highly influential in academic debates over
"participatory development" and development
more generally. Freire's emphasis on what he
describes as "emancipation" through interactive
participation has been used as a rationale for the
participatory focus of development, as it is held
that 'participation' in any form can lead to
empowerment of poor or marginalised groups.
Freire was a proponent of critical pedagogy. "He
participated in the import of European doctrines
and ideas into Brazil, assimilated them to the
needs of a specific socio-economic situation,
and thus expanded and refocused them in a
thought-provoking way" [3]
Other Continental thinkers
Martin Heidegger
Main article: Martin Heidegger
Date: 1889–1976
Heidegger's philosophizing about education was
primarily related to higher education. He believed
that teaching and research in the university
should be unified and aim towards testing and
interrogating the "ontological assumptions
presuppositions which implicitly guide research
in each domain of knowledge." [30]
Hans-Georg Gadamer
Main article: Hans-Georg Gadamer
Date: 1900–2002
Jean-François Lyotard
Main article: Jean-François Lyotard
Date: 1924–1998
Michel Foucault
Main article: Michel Foucault
Date: 1926–1984
Normative educational
philosophies
"Normative philosophies or theories of education
may make use of the results of philosophical
thought and of factual inquiries about human
beings and the psychology of learning, but in any
case they propound views about what education
should be, what dispositions it should cultivate,
why it ought to cultivate them, how and in whom
it should do so, and what forms it should take.
In a full-fledged philosophical normative theory
of education, besides analysis of the sorts
described, there will normally be propositions of
the following kinds: [31]
1. Basic normative premises about what is
good or right;
2. Basic factual premises about humanity and
the world;
3. Conclusions, based on these two kinds of
premises, about the dispositions education
should foster;
4. Further factual premises about such things as
the psychology of learning and methods of
teaching; and
5. Further conclusions about such things as the
methods that education should use." [2]
Perennialism
Main article: Educational perennialism
Perennialists believe that one should teach the
things that one deems to be of everlasting
importance to all people everywhere. They
believe that the most important topics develop a
person. Since details of fact change constantly,
these cannot be the most important. Therefore,
one should teach principles, not facts. Since
people are human, one should teach first about
humans, not machines or techniques. Since
people are people first, and workers second if at
all, one should teach liberal topics first, not
vocational topics. The focus is primarily on
teaching reasoning and wisdom rather than facts,
the liberal arts rather than vocational training.
Allan Bloom
Alexander Sutherland Neill
Main article: Allan Bloom
Date: 1930–1992
Bloom, a professor of political science at the
University of Chicago , argued for a traditional
Great Books-based liberal education in his
lengthy essay The Closing of the American Mind.
Classical education
Main article: Classical education movement
The Classical education movement advocates a
form of education based in the traditions of
Western culture, with a particular focus on
education as understood and taught in the
Middle Ages. The term "classical education" has
been used in English for several centuries, with
each era modifying the definition and adding its
own selection of topics. By the end of the 18th
century, in addition to the trivium and quadrivium
of the Middle Ages, the definition of a classical
education embraced study of literature, poetry,
drama, philosophy, history, art, and languages. In
the 20th and 21st centuries it is used to refer to
a broad-based study of the liberal arts and
sciences, as opposed to a practical or pre-
professional program. Classical Education can
be described as rigorous and systematic,
separating children and their learning into three
rigid categories, Grammar, Dialectic, and
Rhetoric.
Charlotte Mason
Main article: Charlotte Mason
Date: 1842–1923
Mason was a British educator who invested her
life in improving the quality of children's
education. Her ideas led to a method used by
some homeschoolers. Mason's philosophy of
education is probably best summarized by the
principles given at the beginning of each of her
books. Two key mottos taken from those
principles are "Education is an atmosphere, a
discipline, a life" and "Education is the science
of relations." She believed that children were
born persons and should be respected as such;
they should also be taught the Way of the Will
and the Way of Reason. Her motto for students
was "I am, I can, I ought, I will." Charlotte
Mason believed that children should be
introduced to subjects through living books, not
through the use of "compendiums, abstracts, or
selections." She used abridged books only when
the content was deemed inappropriate for
children. She preferred that parents or teachers
read aloud those texts (such as Plutarch and the
Old Testament), making omissions only where
necessary.
Essentialism
Main article: Educational essentialism
Educational essentialism is an educational
philosophy whose adherents believe that children
should learn the traditional basic subjects and
that these should be learned thoroughly and
rigorously. This is based on the view that there
are essentials that men should know for being
educated and are expected to learn the
academic areas of reading, writing, mathematics,
science, geography , and technology . [32][33]
This movement, thus, stresses the role played by
the teacher as the authority in the classroom,
driving the goal of content mastery. [34]
An essentialist program normally teaches
children progressively, from less complex skills
to more complex. The " back to basics"
movement is an example of essentialism. [33]
William Chandler Bagley
Main article: William Chandler Bagley
Date: 1874–1946
William Chandler Bagley taught in elementary
schools before becoming a professor of
education at the University of Illinois, where he
served as the Director of the School of Education
from 1908 until 1917. He was a professor of
education at Teachers College, Columbia, from
1917 to 1940. An opponent of pragmatism and
progressive education, Bagley insisted on the
value of knowledge for its own sake, not merely
as an instrument, and he criticized his
colleagues for their failure to emphasize
systematic study of academic subjects. Bagley
was a proponent of educational essentialism .
Social reconstructionism and
critical pedagogy
Main article: Critical pedagogy
Critical pedagogy is an "educational movement,
guided by passion and principle, to help
students develop consciousness of freedom,
recognize authoritarian tendencies, and connect
knowledge to power and the ability to take
constructive action." Based in Marxist theory ,
critical pedagogy draws on radical democracy,
anarchism, feminism, and other movements for
social justice.
George Counts
Main article: George Counts
Date: 1889–1974
Maria Montessori
Maria Montessori and Samuel Sidney
McClure
Main article: Maria Montessori
Date: 1870–1952
The Montessori method arose from Dr. Maria
Montessori's discovery of what she referred to as
"the child's true normal nature" in 1907, [35]
which happened in the process of her
experimental observation of young children given
freedom in an environment prepared with
materials designed for their self-directed learning
activity. [36] The method itself aims to duplicate
this experimental observation of children to bring
about, sustain and support their true natural way
of being. [37]
Waldorf
Main article: Waldorf education
Waldorf education (also known as Steiner or
Steiner-Waldorf education) is a humanistic
approach to pedagogy based upon the
educational philosophy of the Austrian
philosopher Rudolf Steiner, the founder of
anthroposophy . Learning is interdisciplinary,
integrating practical, artistic, and conceptual
elements. The approach emphasizes the role of
the imagination in learning, developing thinking
that includes a creative as well as an analytic
component. The educational philosophy's
overarching goals are to provide young people
the basis on which to develop into free, morally
responsible and integrated individuals, and to
help every child fulfill his or her unique destiny,
the existence of which anthroposophy posits.
Schools and teachers are given considerable
freedom to define curricula within collegial
structures.
Rudolf Steiner
Main article: Rudolf Steiner
Date: 1861–1925
Steiner founded a holistic educational impulse
on the basis of his spiritual philosophy
( anthroposophy). Now known as Steiner or
Waldorf education, his pedagogy emphasizes a
balanced development of cognitive , affective/
artistic , and practical skills (head, heart, and
hands). Schools are normally self-administered
by faculty; emphasis is placed upon giving
individual teachers the freedom to develop
creative methods.
Steiner's theory of child development divides
education into three discrete developmental
stages predating but with close similarities to
the stages of development described by Piaget.
Early childhood education occurs through
imitation; teachers provide practical activities
and a healthy environment. Steiner believed that
young children should meet only goodness.
Elementary education is strongly arts-based,
centered on the teacher's creative authority; the
elementary school-age child should meet beauty.
Secondary education seeks to develop the
judgment, intellect, and practical idealism; the
adolescent should meet truth.
Democratic education
Main article: Democratic education
Democratic education is a theory of learning and
school governance in which students and staff
participate freely and equally in a school
democracy. In a democratic school, there is
typically shared decision-making among students
and staff on matters concerning living, working,
and learning together.
A. S. Neill
Main article: A. S. Neill
Date: 1883–1973
Neill founded Summerhill School , the oldest
existing democratic school in Suffolk, England in
1921. He wrote a number of books that now
define much of contemporary democratic
education philosophy. Neill believed that the
happiness of the child should be the paramount
consideration in decisions about the child's
upbringing, and that this happiness grew from a
sense of personal freedom. He felt that
deprivation of this sense of freedom during
childhood, and the consequent unhappiness
experienced by the repressed child, was
responsible for many of the psychological
disorders of adulthood.
Progressivism
Main article: Educational progressivism
Educational progressivism is the belief that
education must be based on the principle that
humans are social animals who learn best in
real-life activities with other people.
Progressivists , like proponents of most
educational theories, claim to rely on the best
available scientific theories of learning. Most
progressive educators believe that children learn
as if they were scientists, following a process
similar to John Dewey's model of learning known
as "the pattern of inquiry": [38] 1) Become aware
of the problem. 2) Define the problem. 3)
Propose hypotheses to solve it. 4) Evaluate the
consequences of the hypotheses from one's past
experience. 5) Test the likeliest solution. [4]
John Dewey
Main article: John Dewey
Date: 1859–1952
In 1896, Dewey opened the Laboratory School at
the University of Chicago in an institutional effort
to pursue together rather than apart "utility and
culture, absorption and expression, theory and
practice, [which] are [indispensable] elements in
any educational scheme. [39] As the unified head
of the departments of Philosophy, Psychology
and Pedagogy, John Dewey articulated a desire
to organize an educational experience where
children could be more creative than the best of
progressive models of his day. [40]
Transactionalism as a pragmatic philosophy
grew out of the work he did in the Laboratory
School. The two most influential works that
stemmed from his research and study were The
Child and the Curriculum (1902) and Democracy
and Education (1916). [41] Dewey wrote of the
dualisms that plagued educational philosophy in
the latter book: "Instead of seeing the educative
process steadily and as a whole, we see
conflicting terms. We get the case of the child
vs. the curriculum; of the individual nature vs.
social culture." [42] Dewey found that the
preoccupation with facts as knowledge in the
educative process led students to memorize "ill-
understood rules and principles" and while
second-hand knowledge learned in mere words
is a beginning in study, mere words can never
replace the ability to organize knowledge into
both useful and valuable experience. [43]
Jean Piaget
Main article: Jean Piaget
Date: 1896–1980
Jean Piaget was a Swiss developmental
psychologist known for his epistemological
studies with children. His theory of cognitive
development and epistemological view are
together called "genetic epistemology ". Piaget
placed great importance on the education of
children. As the Director of the International
Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that
"only education is capable of saving our
societies from possible collapse, whether violent,
or gradual." [44] Piaget created the International
Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva in
1955 and directed it until 1980. According to
Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the great
pioneer of the constructivist theory of
knowing ." [45]
Jean Piaget described himself as an
epistemologist, interested in the process of the
qualitative development of knowledge. As he
says in the introduction of his book "Genetic
Epistemology" ( ISBN 978-0-393-00596-7 ): " What
the genetic epistemology proposes is discovering
the roots of the different varieties of knowledge,
since its elementary forms, following to the next
levels, including also the scientific knowledge. "
Jerome Bruner
Main article: Jerome Bruner
Date: 1915–2016
Another important contributor to the inquiry
method in education is Bruner. His books The
Process of Education and Toward a Theory of
Instruction are landmarks in conceptualizing
learning and curriculum development. He argued
that any subject can be taught in some
intellectually honest form to any child at any
stage of development. This notion was an
underpinning for his concept of the
" spiral " ( helical ) curriculum which posited the
idea that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas,
building on them until the student had grasped
the full formal concept. He emphasized intuition
as a neglected but essential feature of
productive thinking. He felt that interest in the
material being learned was the best stimulus for
learning rather than external motivation such as
grades. Bruner developed the concept of
discovery learning which promoted learning as a
process of constructing new ideas based on
current or past knowledge. Students are
encouraged to discover facts and relationships
and continually build on what they already know.
Unschooling
Main article: Unschooling
Unschooling is a range of educational
philosophies and practices centered on allowing
children to learn through their natural life
experiences, including child directed play , game
play, household responsibilities, work experience,
and social interaction , rather than through a more
traditional school curriculum. Unschooling
encourages exploration of activities led by the
children themselves, facilitated by the adults.
Unschooling differs from conventional schooling
principally in the thesis that standard curricula
and conventional grading methods, as well as
other features of traditional schooling, are
counterproductive to the goal of maximizing the
education of each child.
John Holt
Main article: John Holt (educator)
In 1964 Holt published his first book, How
Children Fail , asserting that the academic failure
of schoolchildren was not despite the efforts of
the schools, but actually because of the schools.
Not surprisingly, How Children Fail ignited a
firestorm of controversy. Holt was catapulted
into the American national consciousness to the
extent that he made appearances on major TV
talk shows, wrote book reviews for Life
magazine, and was a guest on the To Tell The
Truth TV game show. [46] In his follow-up work,
How Children Learn , published in 1967, Holt tried
to elucidate the learning process of children and
why he believed school short circuits that
process.
Contemplative education
Contemplative education focuses on bringing
introspective practices such as mindfulness and
yoga into curricular and pedagogical processes
for diverse aims grounded in secular, spiritual,
religious and post-secular perspectives. [47][48]
Contemplative approaches may be used in the
classroom, especially in tertiary or (often in
modified form) in secondary education. Parker
Palmer is a recent pioneer in contemplative
methods. The Center for Contemplative Mind in
Society founded a branch focusing on education,
The Association for Contemplative Mind in
Higher Education.
Contemplative methods may also be used by
teachers in their preparation; Waldorf education
was one of the pioneers of the latter approach.
In this case, inspiration for enriching the content,
format, or teaching methods may be sought
through various practices, such as consciously
reviewing the previous day's activities; actively
holding the students in consciousness; and
contemplating inspiring pedagogical texts. Zigler
suggested that only through focusing on their
own spiritual development could teachers
positively impact the spiritual development of
students. [49]
Professional
organizations and
associations
Organisation Nationality Comment
International
Network of
Philosophers
of Education
Worldwide
INPE is dedicated to
dialogue amongst ph
of education around t
sponsors an internati
conference every oth
year. [ citation needed]
Philosophy
of Education
Society
USA
PES is the national s
philosophy of educati
United States of Ame
site provides informa
PES, its services, his
publications, and link
resources relevant to
philosophy of
education. [ citation ne
Philosophy
of Education
Society of
Great Britain
UK
PESGB promotes the
teaching and applicat
philosophy of educati
an international mem
The site provides: a
Society's activities an
about the Journal of
of Education and
IMPACT. [ citation nee
Philosophy
of Education
Society of
Australasia
Australasia
PESA promotes rese
teaching in philosoph
education. It has a br
membership across
Australia and New Ze
also Asia, Europe an
America. PESA adopt
inclusive approach to
philosophical work in
and welcome contrib
the life of the Society
variety of different th
traditions and perspe
Canadian
Philosophy
of Education
Society
Canada
CPES is devoted to
philosophical inquiry
educational issues a
relevance for develop
educative, caring, an
teachers, schools, an
communities. The so
welcomes inquiries a
membership from pr
and graduate student
these interests. [ citati
The Nordic
Society for
Philosophy
of Education
The
Nordic
countries:
Denmark,
Finland,
Iceland,
Norway,
and
Sweden
The Nordic Society f
Philosophy of Educat
society consisting of
philosophers of educ
the purpose of foster
dialogue among phil
education within and
Nordic countries, and
coordinate, facilitate
exchange of ideas, in
and
experiences. [ citation
Society for
the
Philosophical
Study of
Education
USA
This Society is a prof
association of philos
education which hold
meetings in the Mid
of the United States
and sponsors a disc
forum and a Graduat
Competition. Affiliate
American Philosophic
Association . [ citation
Ohio Valley
Philosophy
of Education
Society
USA, Ohio
Valley
OVPES is a professio
association of philos
education. We host a
conference in the Ohi
region of the United
America and sponsor
journal: Philosophical
Education. [ citation n
John Dewey
Society USA
The John Dewey Soci
to keep alive John D
commitment to the u
critical and reflective
in the search for solu
crucial problems in e
and culture.
StudyPlace
for
Philosophy
of Education
USA,
Columbia
University
This study place exis
persons who wish to
philosophy and educ
because both have v
them, quite apart fro
professional responsi
think networked digit
information resources
people to reverse thi
narrowing
professionalism. [ cita
This site is maintaine
Institute for Learning
Technologies, Teach
Columbia
University . [ citation ne
Center for
Dewey
Studies
USA,
Southern
Illinois
University
The Center for Dewey
Southern Illinois Univ
Carbondale was esta
1961 as the "Dewey
virtue of its publicati
research, the Center
the international focal
research on John De
and work.
International
Society for
Philosophy
of Music
Education
Unknown
the International Soci
Philosophy of Music
(ISPME) is founded o
educational and prof
objectives: "devoted
specific interests of
of music education i
elementary through s
schools, colleges an
universities, in private
places of worship, an
other places and way
music is taught and
learned." [50]
The Spencer
Foundation USA
The Spencer Foundat
provides funding for
investigations that pr
yield new knowledge
education in the Unit
abroad. The Foundati
research grants that r
size from smaller gra
be completed within
larger, multi-year end
Humanities
Research
Network New
Zealand
The Humanities Rese
Network is designed
encourage new ways
about the overlapping
of knowledge which
represented by the ar
humanities, social sc
other related fields li
matauranga Māori, a
relationships among
practitioners. [ citation
Latin
American
Philosophy
of Education
Society
The
Americas
LAPES seeks to intro
wide United States a
knowledge about Lati
philosophies and the
education by providin
students and practici
opportunities to stud
collaborative fashion
collection of philoso
theoretical works on
produced in Latin Am
See also
Philosophy portal
Education portal
Methodology
Pedagogy
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Further reading
Classic and Contemporary Readings in the
Philosophy of Education, by Steven M. Cahn,
1997, ISBN 978-0-07-009619-6
A Companion to the Philosophy of Education
(Blackwell Companions to Philosophy), ed. by
Randall Curren, Paperback edition, 2006,
ISBN 1-4051-4051-8
The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of
Education, ed. by Nigel Blake, Paul Smeyers,
Richard Smith, and Paul Standish, Paperback
edition, 2003, ISBN 0-631-22119-0
Philosophy of Education (Westview Press,
Dimension of Philosophy Series), by Nel
Noddings, Paperback edition, 1995,
ISBN 0-8133-8430-3
The quarterly review of comparative
education: Aristotle [5]
Andre Kraak, Michael Young Education in
Retrospect: Policy And Implementation Since
1990[6]
Freire, UNESCO publication
External links
"Philosophy of Education". In Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Education
Thinkers of Education. UNESCO-International
Bureau of Education website
International Society for Philosophy of Music
Education
International Network of Philosophers of
Education
Philosophy of Education Society
Philosophy of Education Society of Great
Britain
Philosophy of Education Society of
Australia
Canadian Philosophy of Education Society
(CPES)
The Nordic Society for Philosophy of
Education
Society for the Philosophical Study of
Education
The Ohio Valley Philosophy of Education
Society
Humanities Research Network; Te Whatunga
Rangahau Aronu
Leaders Educational Advise
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