Television

For other uses, see Television
(disambiguation) and TV (disambiguation) .
This article is about television as a medium.
For the appliance itself, see television set .
Flat-screen televisions for sale at a consumer
electronics store in 2008.
Television ( TV), sometimes shortened to tele or
telly , is a telecommunication medium used for
transmitting moving images in monochrome
(black and white), or in color, and in two or
three dimensions and sound. The term can refer
to a television set , a television program ("TV
show"), or the medium of television
transmission . Television is a mass medium for
advertising, entertainment and news.
Television became available in crude
experimental forms in the late 1920s, but it
would still be several years before the new
technology would be marketed to consumers.
After World War II , an improved form of black-
and-white TV broadcasting became popular in
the United States and Britain, and television sets
became commonplace in homes, businesses,
and institutions. During the 1950s, television
was the primary medium for influencing public
opinion . [1] In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting
was introduced in the US and most other
developed countries. The availability of multiple
types of archival storage media such as
Betamax , VHS tape, local disks, DVDs, flash
drives, high-definition Blu-ray Discs , and cloud
digital video recorders has enabled viewers to
watch pre-recorded material—such as movies—at
home on their own time schedule. For many
reasons, especially the convenience of remote
retrieval, the storage of television and video
programming now occurs on the cloud . At the
end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital
television transmissions greatly increased in
popularity. Another development was the move
from standard-definition television (SDTV) (576i ,
with 576 interlaced lines of resolution and 480i )
to high-definition television (HDTV), which
provides a resolution that is substantially higher.
HDTV may be transmitted in various formats:
1080p , 1080i and 720p . Since 2010, with the
invention of smart television , Internet television
has increased the availability of television
programs and movies via the Internet through
streaming video services such as Netflix ,
Amazon Video , iPlayer and Hulu .
In 2013, 79% of the world's households owned a
television set. [2] The replacement of early bulky,
high-voltage cathode ray tube (CRT) screen
displays with compact, energy-efficient, flat-panel
alternative technologies such as LCDs (both
fluorescent-backlit and LED ), OLED displays, and
plasma displays was a hardware revolution that
began with computer monitors in the late 1990s.
Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel,
mainly LEDs. Major manufacturers announced the
discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even
fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. [3][4]
In the near future, LEDs are expected to be
gradually replaced by OLEDs. [5] Also, major
manufacturers have announced that they will
increasingly produce smart TVs in the
mid-2010s. [6][7][8] Smart TVs with integrated
Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the
dominant form of television by the late
2010s. [9]
Television signals were initially distributed only
as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-
frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to
individual television receivers. Alternatively
television signals are distributed by coaxial cable
or optical fiber, satellite systems and, since the
2000s via the Internet . Until the early 2000s,
these were transmitted as analog signals, but a
transition to digital television is expected to be
completed worldwide by the late 2010s. A
standard television set is composed of multiple
internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for
receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A
visual display device which lacks a tuner is
correctly called a video monitor rather than a
television.
Etymology
The word television comes from Ancient Greek
τῆλε (tèle) , meaning 'far', and Latin visio,
meaning 'sight'. The first documented usage of
the term dates back to 1900, when the Russian
scientist Constantin Perskyi used it in a paper
that he presented in French at the 1st
International Congress of Electricity, which ran
from 18 to 25 August 1900 during the
International World Fair in Paris. The Anglicised
version of the term is first attested in 1907,
when it was still "...a theoretical system to
transmit moving images over telegraph or
telephone wires". [10] It was "...formed in English
or borrowed from French télévision." [10] In the
19th century and early 20th century, other
"...proposals for the name of a then-hypothetical
technology for sending pictures over distance
were telephote (1880) and televista (1904)." [10]
The abbreviation "TV" is from 1948. The use of
the term to mean "a television set" dates from
1941. [10] The use of the term to mean
"television as a medium" dates from 1927. [10]
The slang term "telly" is more common in the
UK. The slang term "the tube" or the "boob tube"
derives from the bulky cathode ray tube used on
most TVs until the advent of flat-screen TVs.
Another slang term for the TV is "idiot box". [11]
Also, in the 1940s and throughout the 1950s,
during the early rapid growth of television
programming and television-set ownership in the
United States, another slang term became widely
used in that period and continues to be used
today to distinguish productions originally
created for broadcast on television from films
developed for presentation in movie theaters. [12]
The "small screen", as both a compound
adjective and noun, became specific references
to television, while the "big screen" was used to
identify productions made for theatrical
release. [12]
History
Main article: History of television
Mechanical
Main article: Mechanical television
The Nipkow disk . This schematic
shows the circular paths traced by
the holes that may also be square
for greater precision. The area of the
disk outlined in black shows the
region scanned.
Facsimile transmission systems for still
photographs pioneered methods of mechanical
scanning of images in the early 19th century.
Alexander Bain introduced the facsimile machine
between 1843 and 1846. Frederick Bakewell
demonstrated a working laboratory version in
1851. [ citation needed ] Willoughby Smith
discovered the photoconductivity of the element
selenium in 1873. As a 23-year-old German
university student, Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow
proposed and patented the Nipkow disk in
1884. [13] This was a spinning disk with a spiral
pattern of holes in it, so each hole scanned a
line of the image. Although he never built a
working model of the system, variations of
Nipkow's spinning-disk " image rasterizer "
became exceedingly common. [14] Constantin
Perskyi had coined the word television in a
paper read to the International Electricity
Congress at the International World Fair in Paris
on 24 August 1900. Perskyi's paper reviewed the
existing electromechanical technologies,
mentioning the work of Nipkow and others. [15]
However, it was not until 1907 that
developments in amplification tube technology
by Lee de Forest and Arthur Korn , among others,
made the design practical. [16]
The first demonstration of the live transmission
of images was by Georges Rignoux and A.
Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64
selenium cells, individually wired to a
mechanical commutator, served as an electronic
retina . In the receiver, a type of Kerr cell
modulated the light and a series of variously
angled mirrors attached to the edge of a rotating
disc scanned the modulated beam onto the
display screen. A separate circuit regulated
synchronization. The 8x8 pixel resolution in this
proof-of-concept demonstration was just
sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of
the alphabet. An updated image was transmitted
"several times" each second. [17] In 1921
Edouard Belin sent the first image via radio
waves with his belinograph.
In 1911, Boris Rosing and his student Vladimir
Zworykin created a system that used a
mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in
Zworykin's words, "very crude images" over
wires to the "Braun tube" (cathode ray tube or
"CRT") in the receiver. Moving images were not
possible because, in the scanner: "the sensitivity
was not enough and the selenium cell was very
laggy". [18]
Baird in 1925 with his televisor
equipment and dummies "James"
and "Stooky Bill" (right) .
By the 1920s, when amplification made
television practical, Scottish inventor John Logie
Baird employed the Nipkow disk in his prototype
video systems. On 25 March 1925, Baird gave
the first public demonstration of televised
silhouette images in motion, at Selfridge's
Department Store in London. [19] Since human
faces had inadequate contrast to show up on his
primitive system, he televised a ventriloquist's
dummy named "Stooky Bill", whose painted face
had higher contrast, talking and moving. By 26
January 1926, he demonstrated the transmission
of the image of a face in motion by radio. This
is widely regarded as the first television
demonstration. The subject was Baird's business
partner Oliver Hutchinson. Baird's system used
the Nipkow disk for both scanning the image
and displaying it. A bright light shining through a
spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses projected a
bright spot of light which swept across the
subject. A Selenium photoelectric tube detected
the light reflected from the subject and
converted it into a proportional electrical signal.
This was transmitted by AM radio waves to a
receiver unit, where the video signal was applied
to a neon light behind a second Nipkow disk
rotating synchronized with the first. The
brightness of the neon lamp was varied in
proportion to the brightness of each spot on the
image. As each hole in the disk passed by, one
scan line of the image was reproduced. Baird's
disk had 30 holes, producing an image with only
30 scan lines, just enough to recognize a human
face. In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over
438 miles (705 km) of telephone line between
London and Glasgow .
In 1928, Baird's company (Baird Television
Development Company/Cinema Television)
broadcast the first transatlantic television signal,
between London and New York, and the first
shore-to-ship transmission. In 1929, he became
involved in the first experimental mechanical
television service in Germany. In November of
the same year, Baird and Bernard Natan of Pathé
established France's first television company,
Télévision- Baird -Natan. In 1931, he made the
first outdoor remote broadcast, of The
Derby. [20] In 1932, he demonstrated ultra-short
wave television. Baird's mechanical system
reached a peak of 240-lines of resolution on
BBC television broadcasts in 1936, though the
mechanical system did not scan the televised
scene directly. Instead a 17.5mm film was shot,
rapidly developed and then scanned while the
film was still wet.
An American inventor, Charles Francis Jenkins ,
also pioneered the television. He published an
article on "Motion Pictures by Wireless" in 1913,
but it was not until December 1923 that he
transmitted moving silhouette images for
witnesses; and it was on 13 June 1925, that he
publicly demonstrated synchronized transmission
of silhouette pictures. In 1925 Jenkins used the
Nipkow disk and transmitted the silhouette
image of a toy windmill in motion, over a
distance of five miles, from a naval radio station
in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington,
D.C., using a lensed disk scanner with a 48-line
resolution. [21][22] He was granted U.S. Patent
No. 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over
Wireless) on 30 June 1925 (filed 13 March
1922).
Herbert E. Ives and Frank Gray of Bell Telephone
Laboratories gave a dramatic demonstration of
mechanical television on 7 April 1927. Their
reflected-light television system included both
small and large viewing screens. The small
receiver had a 2-inch-wide by 2.5-inch-high
screen. The large receiver had a screen
24 inches wide by 30 inches high. Both sets
were capable of reproducing reasonably accurate,
monochromatic, moving images. Along with the
pictures, the sets received synchronized sound.
The system transmitted images over two paths:
first, a copper wire link from Washington to New
York City, then a radio link from Whippany, New
Jersey . Comparing the two transmission
methods, viewers noted no difference in quality.
Subjects of the telecast included Secretary of
Commerce Herbert Hoover . A flying-spot
scanner beam illuminated these subjects. The
scanner that produced the beam had a 50-
aperture disk. The disc revolved at a rate of 18
frames per second, capturing one frame about
every 56 milliseconds . (Today's systems
typically transmit 30 or 60 frames per second, or
one frame every 33.3 or 16.7 milliseconds
respectively.) Television historian Albert
Abramson underscored the significance of the
Bell Labs demonstration: "It was in fact the best
demonstration of a mechanical television system
ever made to this time. It would be several years
before any other system could even begin to
compare with it in picture quality." [23]
In 1928, WRGB, then W2XB, was started as the
world's first television station. It broadcast from
the General Electric facility in Schenectady, NY. It
was popularly known as " WGY Television".
Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, Léon Theremin
had been developing a mirror drum-based
television, starting with 16 lines resolution in
1925, then 32 lines and eventually 64 using
interlacing in 1926. As part of his thesis, on 7
May 1926, he electrically transmitted, and then
projected, near-simultaneous moving images on
a five-foot square screen. [22] By 1927 he
achieved an image of 100 lines, a resolution that
was not surpassed until May 1932 by RCA, with
120 lines. [24] On 25 December 1926, Kenjiro
Takayanagi demonstrated a television system
with a 40-line resolution that employed a Nipkow
disk scanner and CRT display at Hamamatsu
Industrial High School in Japan. This prototype
is still on display at the Takayanagi Memorial
Museum in Shizuoka University , Hamamatsu
Campus. His research in creating a production
model was halted by the United States after
Japan lost World War II . [25]
Because only a limited number of holes could be
made in the disks, and disks beyond a certain
diameter became impractical, image resolution
on mechanical television broadcasts was
relatively low, ranging from about 30 lines up to
120 or so. Nevertheless, the image quality of
30-line transmissions steadily improved with
technical advances, and by 1933 the UK
broadcasts using the Baird system were
remarkably clear. [26] A few systems ranging into
the 200-line region also went on the air. Two of
these were the 180-line system that Compagnie
des Compteurs (CDC) installed in Paris in 1935,
and the 180-line system that Peck Television
Corp. started in 1935 at station VE9AK in
Montreal. [27][28] The advancement of all-
electronic television (including image dissectors
and other camera tubes and cathode ray tubes
for the reproducer) marked the beginning of the
end for mechanical systems as the dominant
form of television. Mechanical television, despite
its inferior image quality and generally smaller
picture, would remain the primary television
technology until the 1930s. The last mechanical
television broadcasts ended in 1939 at stations
run by a handful of public universities in the
United States.
Electronic
Main article: Video camera tube
In 1897, English physicist J. J. Thomson was
able, in his three famous experiments, to deflect
cathode rays, a fundamental function of the
modern cathode ray tube (CRT). The earliest
version of the CRT was invented by the German
physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897 and is also
known as the "Braun" tube. [29][30] It was a
cold-cathode diode, a modification of the
Crookes tube , with a phosphor-coated screen. In
1906 the Germans Max Dieckmann and Gustav
Glage produced raster images for the first time
in a CRT. [31] In 1907, Russian scientist Boris
Rosing used a CRT in the receiving end of an
experimental video signal to form a picture. He
managed to display simple geometric shapes
onto the screen. [32]
In 1908 Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton , fellow
of the Royal Society (UK), published a letter in
the scientific journal Nature in which he
described how "distant electric vision" could be
achieved by using a cathode ray tube, or Braun
tube, as both a transmitting and receiving
device, [33][34] He expanded on his vision in a
speech given in London in 1911 and reported in
The Times[35] and the Journal of the Röntgen
Society. [36][37] In a letter to Nature published in
October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced
the results of some "not very successful
experiments" he had conducted with G. M.
Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had
attempted to generate an electrical signal by
projecting an image onto a selenium-coated
metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by
a cathode ray beam. [38][39] These experiments
were conducted before March 1914, when
Minchin died, [40] but they were later repeated by
two different teams in 1937, by H. Miller and J.
W. Strange from EMI , [41] and by H. Iams and A.
Rose from RCA . [42] Both teams succeeded in
transmitting "very faint" images with the original
Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate.
Although others had experimented with using a
cathode ray tube as a receiver, the concept of
using one as a transmitter was novel. [43] The
first cathode ray tube to use a hot cathode was
developed by John B. Johnson (who gave his
name to the term Johnson noise) and Harry
Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric , and
became a commercial product in
1922. [ citation needed ]
In 1926, Hungarian engineer Kálmán Tihanyi
designed a television system utilizing fully
electronic scanning and display elements and
employing the principle of "charge storage"
within the scanning (or "camera") tube. [44][45]
[46][47] The problem of low sensitivity to light
resulting in low electrical output from
transmitting or "camera" tubes would be solved
with the introduction of charge-storage
technology by Kálmán Tihanyi beginning in
1924. [48] His solution was a camera tube that
accumulated and stored electrical charges
("photoelectrons") within the tube throughout
each scanning cycle. The device was first
described in a patent application he filed in
Hungary in March 1926 for a television system
he dubbed "Radioskop". [49] After further
refinements included in a 1928 patent
application, [48] Tihanyi's patent was declared
void in Great Britain in 1930, [50] so he applied
for patents in the United States. Although his
breakthrough would be incorporated into the
design of RCA 's "iconoscope" in 1931, the U.S.
patent for Tihanyi's transmitting tube would not
be granted until May 1939. The patent for his
receiving tube had been granted the previous
October. Both patents had been purchased by
RCA prior to their approval. [51][52] Charge
storage remains a basic principle in the design
of imaging devices for television to the present
day. [49] On 25 December 1926, at Hamamatsu
Industrial High School in Japan, Japanese
inventor Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a TV
system with a 40-line resolution that employed a
CRT display. [25] This was the first working
example of a fully electronic television receiver.
Takayanagi did not apply for a patent. [53]
On 7 September 1927, American inventor Philo
Farnsworth 's image dissector camera tube
transmitted its first image, a simple straight line,
at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in San
Francisco. [54][55] By 3 September 1928,
Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently
to hold a demonstration for the press. This is
widely regarded as the first electronic television
demonstration. [55] In 1929, the system was
improved further by the elimination of a motor
generator, so that his television system now had
no mechanical parts. [56] That year, Farnsworth
transmitted the first live human images with his
system, including a three and a half-inch image
of his wife Elma ("Pem") with her eyes closed
(possibly due to the bright lighting required). [57]
Vladimir Zworykin demonstrates
electronic television (1929)
Meanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin was also
experimenting with the cathode ray tube to
create and show images. While working for
Westinghouse Electric in 1923, he began to
develop an electronic camera tube. But in a
1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had
low contrast, and poor definition, and was
stationary. [58] Zworykin's imaging tube never
got beyond the laboratory stage. But RCA, which
acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that
the patent for Farnsworth's 1927 image
dissector was written so broadly that it would
exclude any other electronic imaging device.
Thus RCA, on the basis of Zworykin's 1923
patent application, filed a patent interference suit
against Farnsworth. The U.S. Patent Office
examiner disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding
priority of invention for Farnsworth against
Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin's
1923 system would be unable to produce an
electrical image of the type to challenge his
patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a
color transmission version of his 1923 patent
application; [59] he also divided his original
application in 1931. [60] Zworykin was unable or
unwilling to introduce evidence of a working
model of his tube that was based on his 1923
patent application. In September 1939, after
losing an appeal in the courts, and determined
to go forward with the commercial manufacturing
of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay
Farnsworth US$1 million over a ten-year period,
in addition to license payments, to use his
patents. [61][62]
In 1933, RCA introduced an improved camera
tube that relied on Tihanyi's charge storage
principle. [63] Dubbed the "Iconoscope" by
Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of
about 75,000 lux, and thus was claimed to be
much more sensitive than Farnsworth's image
dissector. [ citation needed ] However, Farnsworth
had overcome his power problems with his
Image Dissector through the invention of a
completely unique "multipactor" device that he
began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in
1931. [64][65] This small tube could amplify a
signal reportedly to the 60th power or better [66]
and showed great promise in all fields of
electronics. Unfortunately, a problem with the
multipactor was that it wore out at an
unsatisfactory rate. [67]
At the Berlin Radio Show in August 1931,
Manfred von Ardenne gave a public
demonstration of a television system using a
CRT for both transmission and reception.
However, Ardenne had not developed a camera
tube, using the CRT instead as a flying-spot
scanner to scan slides and film. [68] Philo
Farnsworth gave the world's first public
demonstration of an all-electronic television
system, using a live camera, at the Franklin
Institute of Philadelphia on 25 August 1934, and
for ten days afterwards. [69][70] Mexican inventor
Guillermo González Camarena also played an
important role in early TV. His experiments with
TV (known as telectroescopía at first) began in
1931 and led to a patent for the "trichromatic
field sequential system" color television in
1940. [71] In Britain, the EMI engineering team
led by Isaac Shoenberg applied in 1932 for a
patent for a new device they dubbed "the
Emitron", [72][73] which formed the heart of the
cameras they designed for the BBC. On 2
November 1936, a 405-line broadcasting service
employing the Emitron began at studios in
Alexandra Palace, and transmitted from a
specially built mast atop one of the Victorian
building's towers. It alternated for a short time
with Baird's mechanical system in adjoining
studios, but was more reliable and visibly
superior. This was the world's first regular "high-
definition" television service. [74]
The original American iconoscope was noisy,
had a high ratio of interference to signal, and
ultimately gave disappointing results, especially
when compared to the high definition mechanical
scanning systems then becoming available. [75]
[76] The EMI team, under the supervision of
Isaac Shoenberg , analyzed how the iconoscope
(or Emitron) produces an electronic signal and
concluded that its real efficiency was only about
5% of the theoretical maximum. [77][78] They
solved this problem by developing, and
patenting in 1934, two new camera tubes
dubbed super-Emitron and CPS Emitron . [79][80]
[81] The super-Emitron was between ten and
fifteen times more sensitive than the original
Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some
cases, this ratio was considerably greater. [77] It
was used for outside broadcasting by the BBC,
for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when
the general public could watch on a television
set as the King laid a wreath at the
Cenotaph. [82] This was the first time that
anyone had broadcast a live street scene from
cameras installed on the roof of neighboring
buildings, because neither Farnsworth nor RCA
would do the same until the 1939 New York
World's Fair.
Ad for the beginning of experimental
television broadcasting in New York City
by RCA in 1939
Indian-head test pattern used during the
black & white era before 1970. It was
displayed when a TV station first signed
on every day.
On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared
some patent rights with the German licensee
company Telefunken. [83] The "image
iconoscope" ("Superikonoskop" in Germany) was
produced as a result of the collaboration. This
tube is essentially identical to the super-
Emitron. [ citation needed] The production and
commercialization of the super-Emitron and
image iconoscope in Europe were not affected
by the patent war between Zworykin and
Farnsworth, because Dieckmann and Hell had
priority in Germany for the invention of the image
dissector, having submitted a patent application
for their Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für
Fernseher (Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube
for Television) in Germany in 1925, [84] two
years before Farnsworth did the same in the
United States. [85] The image iconoscope
(Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard
for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936
until 1960, when it was replaced by the vidicon
and plumbicon tubes. Indeed, it was the
representative of the European tradition in
electronic tubes competing against the American
tradition represented by the image orthicon. [86]
[87] The German company Heimann produced
the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic
Games, [88][89] later Heimann also produced
and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955; [90]
finally the Dutch company Philips produced and
commercialized the image iconoscope and
multicon from 1952 to 1958. [87][91]
American television broadcasting, at the time,
consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range
of sizes, each competing for programming and
dominance with separate technology, until deals
were made and standards agreed upon in
1941. [92] RCA, for example, used only
Iconoscopes in the New York area, but
Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and
San Francisco. [93] In September 1939, RCA
agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and
Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten
years for access to Farnsworth's patents. [94]
With this historic agreement in place, RCA
integrated much of what was best about the
Farnsworth Technology into their systems. [93] In
1941, the United States implemented 525-line
television. [95][96] Electrical engineer Benjamin
Adler played a prominent role in the development
of television. [97][98]
The world's first 625-line television standard was
designed in the Soviet Union in 1944 and
became a national standard in 1946. [99] The
first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in
Moscow in 1948. [100] The concept of 625 lines
per frame was subsequently implemented in the
European CCIR standard. [101] In 1936, Kálmán
Tihanyi described the principle of plasma
display , the first flat panel display system. [102]
[103]
Color
Main article: Color television
The basic idea of using three monochrome
images to produce a color image had been
experimented with almost as soon as black-and-
white televisions had first been built. Although
he gave no practical details, among the earliest
published proposals for television was one by
Maurice Le Blanc, in 1880, for a color system,
including the first mentions in television
literature of line and frame scanning. [104] Polish
inventor Jan Szczepanik patented a color
television system in 1897, using a selenium
photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an
electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror
and a moving prism at the receiver. But his
system contained no means of analyzing the
spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and
could not have worked as he described it. [105]
Another inventor, Hovannes Adamian, also
experimented with color television as early as
1907. The first color television project is
claimed by him,[106] and was patented in
Germany on 31 March 1908, patent No. 197183,
then in Britain, on 1 April 1908, patent No.
7219, [107] in France (patent No. 390326) and
in Russia in 1910 (patent No. 17912). [108]
Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated
the world's first color transmission on 3 July
1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting
and receiving ends with three spirals of
apertures, each spiral with filters of a different
primary color; and three light sources at the
receiving end, with a commutator to alternate
their illumination. [109] Baird also made the
world's first color broadcast on 4 February 1938,
sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image
from Baird's Crystal Palace studios to a
projection screen at London's Dominion
Theatre . [110] Mechanically scanned color
television was also demonstrated by Bell
Laboratories in June 1929 using three complete
systems of photoelectric cells, amplifiers, glow-
tubes, and color filters, with a series of mirrors
to superimpose the red, green, and blue images
into one full color image.
The first practical hybrid system was again
pioneered by John Logie Baird. In 1940 he
publicly demonstrated a color television
combining a traditional black-and-white display
with a rotating colored disk. This device was
very "deep", but was later improved with a mirror
folding the light path into an entirely practical
device resembling a large conventional
console. [111] However, Baird was not happy
with the design, and, as early as 1944, had
commented to a British government committee
that a fully electronic device would be better.
In 1939, Hungarian engineer Peter Carl Goldmark
introduced an electro-mechanical system while
at CBS, which contained an Iconoscope sensor.
The CBS field-sequential color system was partly
mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and
green filters spinning inside the television
camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc
spinning in synchronization in front of the
cathode ray tube inside the receiver set. [112]
The system was first demonstrated to the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on
29 August 1940, and shown to the press on 4
September. [113][114][115][116]
CBS began experimental color field tests using
film as early as 28 August 1940, and live
cameras by 12 November. [114][117] NBC
(owned by RCA) made its first field test of color
television on 20 February 1941. CBS began daily
color field tests on 1 June 1941. [118] These
color systems were not compatible with existing
black-and-white television sets, and, as no color
television sets were available to the public at
this time, viewing of the color field tests was
restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the
invited press. The War Production Board halted
the manufacture of television and radio
equipment for civilian use from 22 April 1942 to
20 August 1945, limiting any opportunity to
introduce color television to the general
public. [119][120]
As early as 1940, Baird had started work on a
fully electronic system he called Telechrome .
Early Telechrome devices used two electron
guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate.
The phosphor was patterned so the electrons
from the guns only fell on one side of the
patterning or the other. Using cyan and magenta
phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image
could be obtained. He also demonstrated the
same system using monochrome signals to
produce a 3D image (called "stereoscopic " at the
time). A demonstration on 16 August 1944 was
the first example of a practical color television
system. Work on the Telechrome continued and
plans were made to introduce a three-gun
version for full color. However, Baird's untimely
death in 1946 ended development of the
Telechrome system. [121][122] Similar concepts
were common through the 1940s and 1950s,
differing primarily in the way they re-combined
the colors generated by the three guns. The Geer
tube was similar to Baird's concept, but used
small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on
their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D
patterning on a flat surface. The Penetron used
three layers of phosphor on top of each other
and increased the power of the beam to reach
the upper layers when drawing those colors. The
Chromatron used a set of focusing wires to
select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical
stripes on the tube.
One of the great technical challenges of
introducing color broadcast television was the
desire to conserve bandwidth, potentially three
times that of the existing black-and-white
standards, and not use an excessive amount of
radio spectrum. In the United States, after
considerable research, the National Television
Systems Committee [123] approved an all-
electronic system developed by RCA , which
encoded the color information separately from
the brightness information and greatly reduced
the resolution of the color information in order to
conserve bandwidth. As black-and-white TVs
could receive the same transmission and display
it in black-and-white, the color system adopted
is [backwards] "compatible". ("Compatible
Color", featured in RCA advertisements of the
period, is mentioned in the song " America", of
West Side Story, 1957.) The brightness image
remained compatible with existing black-and-
white television sets at slightly reduced
resolution, while color televisions could decode
the extra information in the signal and produce a
limited-resolution color display. The higher
resolution black-and-white and lower resolution
color images combine in the brain to produce a
seemingly high-resolution color image. The
NTSC standard represented a major technical
achievement.
Color bars used in a test pattern,
sometimes used when no program
material is available.
The first color broadcast (the first episode of the
live program The Marriage (TV series) ) occurred
on 8 July 1954, but during the following ten
years most network broadcasts, and nearly all
local programming, continued to be in black-
and-white. It was not until the mid-1960s that
color sets started selling in large numbers, due
in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it
was announced that over half of all network
prime-time programming would be broadcast in
color that fall. The first all-color prime-time
season came just one year later. In 1972, the
last holdout among daytime network programs
converted to color, resulting in the first
completely all-color network season.
Early color sets were either floor-standing
console models or tabletop versions nearly as
bulky and heavy; so in practice they remained
firmly anchored in one place. The introduction of
GE's relatively compact and lightweight Porta-
Color set in the spring of 1966 made watching
color television a more flexible and convenient
proposition. In 1972, sales of color sets finally
surpassed sales of black-and-white sets. Color
broadcasting in Europe was not standardized on
the PAL format until the 1960s, and broadcasts
did not start until 1967. By this point many of
the technical problems in the early sets had
been worked out, and the spread of color sets in
Europe was fairly rapid. By the mid-1970s, the
only stations broadcasting in black-and-white
were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small
markets, and a handful of low-power repeater
stations in even smaller markets such as
vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these
had converted to color and, by the early 1980s,
B&W sets had been pushed into niche markets,
notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or
for use as video monitor screens in lower-cost
consumer equipment. By the late 1980s even
these areas switched to color sets.
Digital
Main article: Digital television
See also: Digital television transition
Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of
audio and video by digitally processed and
multiplexed signals, in contrast to the totally
analog and channel separated signals used by
analog television . Due to data compression
digital TV can support more than one program in
the same channel bandwidth. [124] It is an
innovative service that represents the first
significant evolution in television technology
since color television in the 1950s. [125] Digital
TV's roots have been tied very closely to the
availability of inexpensive, high performance
computers. It was not until the 1990s that digital
TV became feasible. [126]
In the mid-1980s, as Japanese consumer
electronics firms forged ahead with the
development of HDTV technology, the MUSE
analog format proposed by NHK, a Japanese
company, was seen as a pacesetter that
threatened to eclipse U.S. electronics
companies' technologies. Until June 1990, the
Japanese MUSE standard, based on an analog
system, was the front-runner among the more
than 23 different technical concepts under
consideration. Then, an American company,
General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility
of a digital television signal. This breakthrough
was of such significance that the FCC was
persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV
standard until a digitally based standard could
be developed.
In March 1990, when it became clear that a
digital standard was feasible, the FCC made a
number of critical decisions. First, the
Commission declared that the new ATV standard
must be more than an enhanced analog signal,
but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal
with at least twice the resolution of existing
television images.(7) Then, to ensure that
viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital
television set could continue to receive
conventional television broadcasts, it dictated
that the new ATV standard must be capable of
being "simulcast" on different channels.(8)The
new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV
signal to be based on entirely new design
principles. Although incompatible with the
existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard
would be able to incorporate many
improvements.
The final standards adopted by the FCC did not
require a single standard for scanning formats,
aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This
compromise resulted from a dispute between
the consumer electronics industry (joined by
some broadcasters) and the computer industry
(joined by the film industry and some public
interest groups) over which of the two scanning
processes—interlaced or progressive—would be
best suited for the newer digital HDTV
compatible display devices. [127] Interlaced
scanning, which had been specifically designed
for older analogue CRT display technologies,
scans even-numbered lines first, then odd-
numbered ones. In fact, interlaced scanning can
be looked at as the first video compression
model as it was partly designed in the 1940s to
double the image resolution to exceed the
limitations of the television broadcast
bandwidth. Another reason for its adoption was
to limit the flickering on early CRT screens
whose phosphor coated screens could only
retain the image from the electron scanning gun
for a relatively short duration. [128] However
interlaced scanning does not work as efficiently
on newer display devices such as Liquid-crystal
(LCD) , for example, which are better suited to a
more frequent progressive refresh rate. [127]
Progressive scanning , the format that the
computer industry had long adopted for
computer display monitors, scans every line in
sequence, from top to bottom. Progressive
scanning in effect doubles the amount of data
generated for every full screen displayed in
comparison to interlaced scanning by painting
the screen in one pass in 1/60-second, instead
of two passes in 1/30-second. The computer
industry argued that progressive scanning is
superior because it does not "flicker" on the new
standard of display devices in the manner of
interlaced scanning. It also argued that
progressive scanning enables easier connections
with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted
to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film
industry also supported progressive scanning
because it offered a more efficient means of
converting filmed programming into digital
formats. For their part, the consumer electronics
industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced
scanning was the only technology that could
transmit the highest quality pictures then (and
currently) feasible, i.e., 1,080 lines per picture
and 1,920 pixels per line. Broadcasters also
favored interlaced scanning because their vast
archive of interlaced programming is not readily
compatible with a progressive format. William F.
Schreiber , who was director of the Advanced
Television Research Program at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology from
1983 until his retirement in 1990, thought that
the continued advocacy of interlaced equipment
originated from consumer electronics companies
that were trying to get back the substantial
investments they made in the interlaced
technology. [129]
Digital television transition started in late 2000s.
All governments across the world set the
deadline for analog shutdown by 2010s. Initially
the adoption rate was low, as the first digital
tuner-equipped TVs were costly. But soon, as
the price of digital-capable TVs dropped, more
and more households were converting to digital
televisions. The transition is expected to be
completed worldwide by mid to late 2010s.
Smart TV
Main article: Smart television
Not to be confused with Internet television ,
Internet Protocol television , or Web television.
A smart TV
The advent of digital television allowed
innovations like smart TVs. A smart television,
sometimes referred to as connected TV or hybrid
TV, is a television set or set-top box with
integrated Internet and Web 2.0 features, and is
an example of technological convergence
between computers, television sets and set-top
boxes. Besides the traditional functions of
television sets and set-top boxes provided
through traditional Broadcasting media, these
devices can also provide Internet TV, online
interactive media , over-the-top content , as well
as on-demand streaming media , and home
networking access. These TVs come pre-loaded
with an operating system. [130][131][132][9]
Smart TV should not to be confused with Internet
TV , Internet Protocol television (IPTV) or with
Web TV . Internet television refers to the receiving
of television content over the Internet instead of
by traditional systems—terrestrial, cable and
satellite (although internet itself is received by
these methods). IPTV is one of the emerging
Internet television technology standards for use
by television broadcasters. Web television
(WebTV) is a term used for programs created by
a wide variety of companies and individuals for
broadcast on Internet TV. A first patent was filed
in 1994[133] (and extended the following
year) [134] for an "intelligent" television system,
linked with data processing systems, by means
of a digital or analog network. Apart from being
linked to data networks, one key point is its
ability to automatically download necessary
software routines, according to a user's demand,
and process their needs. Major TV
manufacturers have announced production of
smart TVs only, for middle-end and high-end
TVs in 2015. [6][7][8] Smart TVs are expected to
become dominant form of television by late
2010s.
3D
Main article: 3D television
This section needs expansion . You can help by
adding to it . (December 2014)
3D television conveys depth perception to the
viewer by employing techniques such as
stereoscopic display, multi-view display, 2D-
plus-depth , or any other form of 3D display .
Most modern 3D television sets use an active
shutter 3D system or a polarized 3D system, and
some are autostereoscopic without the need of
glasses. Stereoscopic 3D television was
demonstrated for the first time on 10 August
1928, by John Logie Baird in his company's
premises at 133 Long Acre, London. [135] Baird
pioneered a variety of 3D television systems
using electromechanical and cathode-ray tube
techniques. The first 3D TV was produced in
1935. The advent of digital television in the
2000s greatly improved 3D TVs. Although 3D TV
sets are quite popular for watching 3D home
media such as on Blu-ray discs, 3D
programming has largely failed to make inroads
with the public. Many 3D television channels
which started in the early 2010s were shut down
by the mid-2010s. According to DisplaySearch
3D televisions shipments totaled 41.45 million
units in 2012, compared with 24.14 in 2011 and
2.26 in 2010. [136] As of late 2013, the number
of 3D TV viewers started to decline. [137][138]
[139][140][141]
Broadcast systems
Terrestrial television
Main article: Terrestrial television
See also: Timeline of the introduction of
television in countries
A modern high gain UHF Yagi television antenna .
It has 17 directors, and one reflector (made of 4
rods) shaped as a corner reflector .
Programming is broadcast by television stations,
sometimes called "channels", as stations are
licensed by their governments to broadcast only
over assigned channels in the television band . At
first, terrestrial broadcasting was the only way
television could be widely distributed, and
because bandwidth was limited, i.e., there were
only a small number of channels available,
government regulation was the norm. In the U.S.,
the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
allowed stations to broadcast advertisements
beginning in July 1941, but required public
service programming commitments as a
requirement for a license. By contrast, the United
Kingdom chose a different route, imposing a
television license fee on owners of television
reception equipment to fund the British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which had
public service as part of its Royal Charter .
WRGB claims to be the world's oldest television
station, tracing its roots to an experimental
station founded on 13 January 1928,
broadcasting from the General Electric factory in
Schenectady, NY, under the call letters
W2XB . [142] It was popularly known as "WGY
Television" after its sister radio station. Later in
1928, General Electric started a second facility,
this one in New York City, which had the call
letters W2XBS and which today is known as
WNBC . The two stations were experimental in
nature and had no regular programming, as
receivers were operated by engineers within the
company. The image of a Felix the Cat doll
rotating on a turntable was broadcast for 2
hours every day for several years as new
technology was being tested by the engineers.
On 2 November 1936, the BBC began
transmitting the world's first public regular high-
definition service from the Victorian Alexandra
Palace in north London. [143] It therefore claims
to be the birthplace of TV broadcasting as we
know it today.
With the widespread adoption of cable across
the United States in the 1970s and 80s,
terrestrial television broadcasts have been in
decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7%
of US households used an antenna. [144][145] A
slight increase in use began around 2010 due to
switchover to digital terrestrial television
broadcasts, which offered pristine image quality
over very large areas, and offered an alternate to
cable television (CATV) for cord cutters . All other
countries around the world are also in the
process of either shutting down analog terrestrial
television or switching over to digital terrestrial
television.
Cable television
Main article: Cable television
See also: Cable television by region
This section needs expansion . You can help by
adding to it . (December 2014)
Coaxial cable is used to carry cable
television signals into cathode ray tube
and flat panel television sets.
Cable television is a system of broadcasting
television programming to paying subscribers via
radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through
coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic
cables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial
television, in which the television signal is
transmitted over the air by radio waves and
received by a television antenna attached to the
television. In the 2000s, FM radio programming,
high-speed Internet, telephone service, and
similar non-television services may also be
provided through these cables. The abbreviation
CATV is often used for cable television. It
originally stood for Community Access
Television or Community Antenna Television,
from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas
where over-the-air reception was limited by
distance from transmitters or mountainous
terrain, large "community antennas" were
constructed, and cable was run from them to
individual homes. [146] The origins of cable
broadcasting are even older as radio
programming was distributed by cable in some
European cities as far back as 1924. Earlier
cable television was analog, but since the
2000s, all cable operators have switched to, or
are in the process of switching to, digital cable
television.
Satellite television
Main article: Satellite television
DBS satellite dishes installed on an apartment
complex.
Satellite television is a system of supplying
television programming using broadcast signals
relayed from communication satellites . The
signals are received via an outdoor parabolic
reflector antenna usually referred to as a satellite
dish and a low-noise block downconverter
(LNB). A satellite receiver then decodes the
desired television program for viewing on a
television set . Receivers can be external set-top
boxes, or a built-in television tuner . Satellite
television provides a wide range of channels and
services, especially to geographic areas without
terrestrial television or cable television.
The most common method of reception is
direct-broadcast satellite television (DBSTV),
also known as "direct to home" (DTH). [147] In
DBSTV systems, signals are relayed from a
direct broadcast satellite on the K u wavelength
and are completely digital. [148] Satellite TV
systems formerly used systems known as
television receive-only . These systems received
analog signals transmitted in the C-band
spectrum from FSS type satellites, and required
the use of large dishes. Consequently, these
systems were nicknamed "big dish" systems,
and were more expensive and less popular. [149]
The direct-broadcast satellite television signals
were earlier analog signals and later digital
signals, both of which require a compatible
receiver. Digital signals may include high-
definition television (HDTV). Some transmissions
and channels are free-to-air or free-to-view , while
many other channels are pay television requiring
a subscription. [150] In 1945, British science
fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a
worldwide communications system which would
function by means of three satellites equally
spaced apart in earth orbit. [151][152] This was
published in the October 1945 issue of the
Wireless World magazine and won him the
Franklin Institute 's Stuart Ballantine Medal in
1963. [153][154]
The first satellite television signals from Europe
to North America were relayed via the Telstar
satellite over the Atlantic ocean on 23 July
1962. [155] The signals were received and
broadcast in North American and European
countries and watched by over 100 million. [155]
Launched in 1962, the Relay 1 satellite was the
first satellite to transmit television signals from
the US to Japan. [156] The first geosynchronous
communication satellite , Syncom 2, was
launched on 26 July 1963. [157]
The world's first commercial communications
satellite, called Intelsat I and nicknamed "Early
Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit
on 6 April 1965. [158] The first national network
of television satellites, called Orbita , was created
by the Soviet Union in October 1967, and was
based on the principle of using the highly
elliptical Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and
delivering of television signals to ground
downlink stations. [159] The first commercial
North American satellite to carry television
transmissions was Canada's geostationary Anik
1, which was launched on 9 November
1972. [160] ATS-6 , the world's first experimental
educational and Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS),
was launched on 30 May 1974. [161] It
transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM
modulation and had two sound channels. The
transmissions were focused on the Indian
subcontinent but experimenters were able to
receive the signal in Western Europe using home
constructed equipment that drew on UHF
television design techniques already in use. [162]
The first in a series of Soviet geostationary
satellites to carry Direct-To-Home television,
Ekran 1, was launched on 26 October
1976. [163] It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink
frequency so that the transmissions could be
received with existing UHF television technology
rather than microwave technology. [164]
Internet television
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Main article: Streaming television
Not to be confused with Smart television,
Internet Protocol television , or Web television.
Internet television (Internet TV) (or online
television) is the digital distribution of television
content via the Internet as opposed to traditional
systems like terrestrial, cable, and satellite,
although the Internet itself is received by
terrestrial, cable, or satellite methods. Internet
television is a general term that covers the
delivery of television shows, and other video
content, over the Internet by video streaming
technology, typically by major traditional
television broadcasters. Internet television should
not be confused with Smart TV , IPTV or with
Web TV . Smart television refers to the TV set
which has a built-in operating system. Internet
Protocol television (IPTV) is one of the emerging
Internet television technology standards for use
by television broadcasters. Web television is a
term used for programs created by a wide
variety of companies and individuals for
broadcast on Internet TV.
Sets
Main article: Television set
RCA 630-TS, the first mass-produced
television set, which sold in 1946–1947
A television set, also called a television receiver,
television, TV set, TV, or "telly", is a device that
combines a tuner, display, an amplifier, and
speakers for the purpose of viewing television
and hearing its audio components. Introduced in
late 1920's in mechanical form, television sets
became a popular consumer product after World
War II in electronic form, using cathode ray
tubes . The addition of color to broadcast
television after 1953 further increased the
popularity of television sets and an outdoor
antenna became a common feature of suburban
homes. The ubiquitous television set became
the display device for recorded media in the
1970s, such as Betamax and VHS , which
enabled viewers to record TV shows and watch
prerecorded movies. In the subsequent decades,
TVs were used to watch DVDs and Blu-ray Discs
of movies and other content. Major TV
manufacturers announced the discontinuation of
CRT, DLP, plasma and fluorescent-backlit LCDs
by the mid-2010s. Televisions since 2010s
mostly use LEDs. [3][4][165][166] LEDs are
expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs in
near future. [5]
Display technologies
Main article: Display device
Disk
Main article: Nipkow disk
The earliest systems employed a spinning disk
to create and reproduce images. [167] These
usually had a low resolution and screen size and
never became popular with the public.
CRT
Main article: Cathode ray tube
A 14-inch cathode ray tube showing
its deflection coils and electron guns
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube
containing one or more electron guns (a source
of electrons or electron emitter) and a
fluorescent screen used to view images. [32] It
has a means to accelerate and deflect the
electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the
images. The images may represent electrical
waveforms (oscilloscope ), pictures (television,
computer monitor ), radar targets or others. The
CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is
large, deep (i.e. long from front screen face to
rear end), fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. As a
matter of safety, the face is typically made of
thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-
resistant and to block most X-ray emissions,
particularly if the CRT is used in a consumer
product.
In television sets and computer monitors , the
entire front area of the tube is scanned
repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern
called a raster. An image is produced by
controlling the intensity of each of the three
electron beams , one for each additive primary
color (red, green, and blue) with a video signal
as a reference. [168] In all modern CRT monitors
and televisions, the beams are bent by magnetic
deflection, a varying magnetic field generated by
coils and driven by electronic circuits around the
neck of the tube, although electrostatic
deflection is commonly used in oscilloscopes , a
type of diagnostic instrument. [168]
DLP
Main article: Digital Light Processing
The Christie Mirage 5000, a 2001
DLP projector.
Digital Light Processing (DLP) is a type of video
projector technology that uses a digital
micromirror device . Some DLPs have a TV tuner,
which makes them a type of TV display. It was
originally developed in 1987 by Dr. Larry
Hornbeck of Texas Instruments . While the DLP
imaging device was invented by Texas
Instruments, the first DLP based projector was
introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997.
Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were
both awarded Emmy Awards in 1998 for
invention of the DLP projector technology. DLP
is used in a variety of display applications from
traditional static displays to interactive displays
and also non-traditional embedded applications
including medical, security, and industrial uses.
DLP technology is used in DLP front projectors
(standalone projection units for classrooms and
business primarily), but also in private homes; in
these cases, the image is projected onto a
projection screen. DLP is also used in DLP rear
projection television sets and digital signs. It is
also used in about 85% of digital cinema
projection. [169]
Plasma
Main article: Plasma display
A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat
panel display common to large TV displays 30
inches (76 cm) or larger. They are called
" plasma " displays because the technology
utilizes small cells containing electrically charged
ionized gases, or what are in essence chambers
more commonly known as fluorescent lamps .
LCD
Main article: Liquid crystal display
A generic LCD TV, with speakers on
either side of the screen.
Liquid-crystal-display televisions (LCD TV) are
television sets that use LCD display technology
to produce images. LCD televisions are much
thinner and lighter than cathode ray tube (CRTs)
of similar display size, and are available in much
larger sizes (e.g., 90-inch diagonal). When
manufacturing costs fell, this combination of
features made LCDs practical for television
receivers. LCDs come in two types: those using
cold cathode fluorescent lamps, simply called
LCDs and those using LED as backlight called as
LEDs.
In 2007, LCD televisions surpassed sales of
CRT-based televisions worldwide for the first
time, and their sales figures relative to other
technologies accelerated. LCD TVs have quickly
displaced the only major competitors in the
large-screen market, the Plasma display panel
and rear-projection television. [170] In mid 2010s
LCDs especially LEDs became, by far, the most
widely produced and sold television display
type. [165][166] LCDs also have disadvantages.
Other technologies address these weaknesses,
including OLEDs, FED and SED , but as of 2014
none of these have entered widespread
production.
OLED
Main article: Organic light-emitting diode
OLED TV
An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is a light-
emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive
electroluminescent layer is a film of organic
compound which emits light in response to an
electric current. This layer of organic
semiconductor is situated between two
electrodes. Generally, at least one of these
electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to
create digital displays in devices such as
television screens. It is also used for computer
monitors, portable systems such as mobile
phones , handheld game consoles and PDAs .
There are two main families of OLED: those
based on small molecules and those employing
polymers . Adding mobile ions to an OLED
creates a light-emitting electrochemical cell or
LEC, which has a slightly different mode of
operation. OLED displays can use either passive-
matrix (PMOLED) or active-matrix (AMOLED)
addressing schemes. Active-matrix OLEDs
require a thin-film transistor backplane to switch
each individual pixel on or off, but allow for
higher resolution and larger display sizes.
An OLED display works without a backlight.
Thus, it can display deep black levels and can
be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal
display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions
such as a dark room an OLED screen can
achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD,
whether the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent
lamps or LED backlight. OLEDs are expected to
replace other forms of display in near future. [5]
Display resolution
Comparison of 8K UHDTV , 4K UHDTV , HDTV
and SDTV resolution
LD
Main article: Low-definition television
Low-definition television or LDTV refers to
television systems that have a lower screen
resolution than standard-definition television
systems such 240p (320*240). It is used in
handheld television . The most common source
of LDTV programming is the Internet, where
mass distribution of higher-resolution video files
could overwhelm computer servers and take too
long to download. Many mobile phones and
portable devices such as Apple's iPod Nano , or
Sony's PlayStation Portable use LDTV video, as
higher-resolution files would be excessive to the
needs of their small screens (320×240 and
480×272 pixels respectively). The current
generation of iPod Nanos have LDTV screens, as
do the first three generations of iPod Touch and
iPhone (480×320). For the first years of its
existence, YouTube offered only one, low-
definition resolution of 320x240p at 30fps or
less. A standard, consumer grade VHS videotape
can be considered SDTV due to its resolution
(approximately 360 × 480i/576i).
SD
Main article: Standard-definition television
Standard-definition television or SDTV refers to
two different resolutions: 576i , with 576
interlaced lines of resolution, derived from the
European-developed PAL and SECAM systems;
and 480i based on the American National
Television System Committee NTSC system.
SDTV is a television system that uses a
resolution that is not considered to be either
high-definition television (720p , 1080i , 1080p ,
1440p , 4K UHDTV , and 8K UHD ) or enhanced-
definition television (EDTV 480p ). In North
America, digital SDTV is broadcast in the same
4:3 aspect ratio as NTSC signals with
widescreen content being center cut . [171]
However, in other parts of the world that used
the PAL or SECAM color systems, standard-
definition television is now usually shown with a
16:9 aspect ratio, with the transition occurring
between the mid-1990s and mid-2000s. Older
programs with a 4:3 aspect ratio are shown in
the US as 4:3 with non-ATSC countries preferring
to reduce the horizontal resolution by
anamorphically scaling a pillarboxed image.
HD
Main article: High-definition television
High-definition television (HDTV) provides a
resolution that is substantially higher than that of
standard-definition television .
HDTV may be transmitted in various formats:
1080p : 1920×1080p: 2,073,600 pixels
(~2.07 megapixels ) per frame
1080i : 1920×1080i: 1,036,800 pixels (~1.04
MP) per field or 2,073,600 pixels (~2.07 MP)
per frame
A non-standard CEA resolution exists in
some countries such as 1440×1080i:
777,600 pixels (~0.78 MP) per field or
1,555,200 pixels (~1.56 MP) per frame
720p : 1280×720p: 921,600 pixels (~0.92
MP) per frame
UHD
Main article: Ultra-high-definition television
4K UHD television.
Ultra-high-definition television (also known as
Super Hi-Vision, Ultra HD television, UltraHD,
UHDTV, or UHD) includes 4K UHD (2160p) and
8K UHD (4320p), which are two digital video
formats proposed by NHK Science & Technology
Research Laboratories and defined and approved
by the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU). The Consumer Electronics Association
announced on 17 October 2012, that "Ultra High
Definition", or "Ultra HD", would be used for
displays that have an aspect ratio of at least
16:9 and at least one digital input capable of
carrying and presenting native video at a
minimum resolution of 3840×2160 pixels. [172]
[173]
Market share
North American consumers purchase a new
television set on average every seven years, and
the average household owns 2.8 televisions. As
of 2011, 48 million are sold each year at an
average price of $460 and size of 38 in
(97 cm). [174]
Worldwide LCD TV manufacturers market
share, 2017
Manufacturer Statista[175]
Samsung Electronics 20.2%
LG Electronics 12.1%
TCL 10.9%
Hisense 6%
Sony 5.6%
Sharp 4.2%
AOC /TP Vision (Philips ) 4.1%
Skyworth 3.8%
Haier 3%
Panasonic 2.9%
Others 27.2%
Content
Programming
See also: Television show
Getting TV programming shown to the public
can happen in many different ways. After
production, the next step is to market and deliver
the product to whichever markets are open to
using it. This typically happens on two levels:
1. Original run or First run: a producer creates a
program of one or multiple episodes and shows
it on a station or network which has either paid
for the production itself or to which a license
has been granted by the television producers to
do the same.
2. Broadcast syndication : this is the
terminology rather broadly used to describe
secondary programming usages (beyond original
run). It includes secondary runs in the country of
first issue, but also international usage which
may not be managed by the originating
producer. In many cases, other companies, TV
stations, or individuals are engaged to do the
syndication work, in other words, to sell the
product into the markets they are allowed to sell
into by contract from the copyright holders, in
most cases the producers.
First-run programming is increasing on
subscription services outside the US, but few
domestically produced programs are syndicated
on domestic free-to-air (FTA) elsewhere. This
practice is increasing, however, generally on
digital-only FTA channels or with subscriber-only,
first-run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the
US, repeat FTA screenings of an FTA network
program usually only occur on that network.
Also, affiliates rarely buy or produce non-network
programming that is not centered on local
programming.
Genres
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The examples and perspective in this section
deal primarily with the United States and do not
represent a worldwide view of the subject . You
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Television genres include a broad range of
programming types that entertain, inform, and
educate viewers. The most expensive
entertainment genres to produce are usually
dramas and dramatic miniseries. However, other
genres, such as historical Western genres, may
also have high production costs.
Popular culture entertainment genres include
action-oriented shows such as police, crime,
detective dramas, horror, or thriller shows. As
well, there are also other variants of the drama
genre, such as medical dramas and daytime
soap operas. Science fiction shows can fall into
either the drama or action category, depending
on whether they emphasize philosophical
questions or high adventure. Comedy is a
popular genre which includes situation comedy
(sitcom) and animated shows for the adult
demographic such as South Park .
The least expensive forms of entertainment
programming genres are game shows, talk
shows, variety shows, and reality television.
Game shows feature contestants answering
questions and solving puzzles to win prizes. Talk
shows contain interviews with film, television,
music and sports celebrities and public figures.
Variety shows feature a range of musical
performers and other entertainers, such as
comedians and magicians, introduced by a host
or Master of Ceremonies . There is some
crossover between some talk shows and variety
shows because leading talk shows often feature
performances by bands, singers, comedians, and
other performers in between the interview
segments. Reality TV shows "regular" people
(i.e., not actors) facing unusual challenges or
experiences ranging from arrest by police
officers (COPS) to significant weight loss ( The
Biggest Loser ). A variant version of reality shows
depicts celebrities doing mundane activities such
as going about their everyday life ( The
Osbournes , Snoop Dogg's Father Hood ) or doing
regular jobs (The Simple Life ).
Fictional television programs that some
television scholars and broadcasting advocacy
groups argue are "quality television", include
series such as Twin Peaks and The Sopranos .
Kristin Thompson argues that some of these
television series exhibit traits also found in art
films, such as psychological realism, narrative
complexity, and ambiguous plotlines. Nonfiction
television programs that some television
scholars and broadcasting advocacy groups
argue are "quality television", include a range of
serious, noncommercial, programming aimed at
a niche audience, such as documentaries and
public affairs shows.
Funding
Television sets per 1000 people of the world
1000+ 100–200
500–1000 50–100
300–500 0–50
200–300 No data
Around the globe, broadcast TV is financed by
government, advertising, licensing (a form of
tax), subscription, or any combination of these.
To protect revenues, subscription TV channels
are usually encrypted to ensure that only
subscribers receive the decryption codes to see
the signal. Unencrypted channels are known as
free to air or FTA. In 2009, the global TV market
represented 1,217.2 million TV households with
at least one TV and total revenues of
268.9 billion EUR (declining 1.2% compared to
2008). [176] North America had the biggest TV
revenue market share with 39% followed by
Europe (31%), Asia-Pacific (21%), Latin America
(8%), and Africa and the Middle East (2%). [177]
Globally, the different TV revenue sources divide
into 45–50% TV advertising revenues, 40–45%
subscription fees and 10% public funding. [178]
[179]
Advertising
Main article: Television advertisement
TV's broad reach makes it a powerful and
attractive medium for advertisers. Many TV
networks and stations sell blocks of broadcast
time to advertisers ("sponsors") to fund their
programming. [180] Television advertisements
(variously called a television commercial,
commercial or ad in American English, and
known in British English as an advert) is a span
of television programming produced and paid for
by an organization, which conveys a message,
typically to market a product or service.
Advertising revenue provides a significant portion
of the funding for most privately owned
television networks. The vast majority of
television advertisements today consist of brief
advertising spots, ranging in length from a few
seconds to several minutes (as well as program-
length infomercials ). Advertisements of this sort
have been used to promote a wide variety of
goods, services and ideas since the beginning of
television.
Television was still in its experimental
phase in 1928, but the medium's
potential to sell goods was already
predicted.
The effects of television advertising upon the
viewing public (and the effects of mass media in
general) have been the subject of philosophical
discourse by such luminaries as Marshall
McLuhan . The viewership of television
programming, as measured by companies such
as Nielsen Media Research, is often used as a
metric for television advertisement placement,
and consequently, for the rates charged to
advertisers to air within a given network,
television program, or time of day (called a
"daypart"). In many countries, including the
United States, television campaign
advertisements are considered indispensable for
a political campaign . In other countries, such as
France, political advertising on television is
heavily restricted, [181] while some countries,
such as Norway, completely ban political
advertisements.
The first official, paid television advertisement
was broadcast in the United States on 1 July
1941 over New York station WNBT (now WNBC )
before a baseball game between the Brooklyn
Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies . The
announcement for Bulova watches, for which the
company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00
(reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern
modified to look like a clock with the hands
showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the
phrase "Bulova Watch Time", was shown in the
lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern
while the second hand swept around the dial for
one minute. [182][183] The first TV ad broadcast
in the UK was on ITV on 22 September 1955,
advertising Gibbs SR toothpaste. The first TV ad
broadcast in Asia was on Nippon Television in
Tokyo on 28 August 1953, advertising Seikosha
(now Seiko ), which also displayed a clock with
the current time. [184]
United States
Since inception in the US in 1941, [185]
television commercials have become one of the
most effective, persuasive, and popular methods
of selling products of many sorts, especially
consumer goods. During the 1940s and into the
1950s, programs were hosted by single
advertisers. This, in turn, gave great creative
license to the advertisers over the content of the
show. Perhaps due to the quiz show scandals in
the 1950s, [186] networks shifted to the
magazine concept, introducing advertising
breaks with multiple advertisers.
US advertising rates are determined primarily by
Nielsen ratings . The time of the day and
popularity of the channel determine how much a
TV commercial can cost. For example, it can
cost approximately $750,000 for a 30-second
block of commercial time during the highly
popular American Idol, while the same amount of
time for the Super Bowl can cost several million
dollars. Conversely, lesser-viewed time slots ,
such as early mornings and weekday afternoons,
are often sold in bulk to producers of
infomercials at far lower rates. In recent years,
the paid program or infomercial has become
common, usually in lengths of 30 minutes or one
hour. Some drug companies and other
businesses have even created "news" items for
broadcast, known in the industry as video news
releases , paying program directors to use
them. [187]
Some TV programs also deliberately place
products into their shows as advertisements, a
practice started in feature films[188] and known
as product placement . For example, a character
could be drinking a certain kind of soda, going
to a particular chain restaurant , or driving a
certain make of car. (This is sometimes very
subtle, with shows having vehicles provided by
manufacturers for low cost in exchange as a
product placement ). Sometimes, a specific
brand or trade mark, or music from a certain
artist or group, is used. (This excludes guest
appearances by artists who perform on the
show.)
United Kingdom
The TV regulator oversees TV advertising in the
United Kingdom. Its restrictions have applied
since the early days of commercially funded TV.
Despite this, an early TV mogul, Roy Thomson,
likened the broadcasting licence as being a
"licence to print money". [189] Restrictions mean
that the big three national commercial TV
channels: ITV , Channel 4, and Channel 5 can
show an average of only seven minutes of
advertising per hour (eight minutes in the peak
period). Other broadcasters must average no
more than nine minutes (twelve in the peak).
This means that many imported TV shows from
the US have unnatural pauses where the UK
company does not utilize the narrative breaks
intended for more frequent US advertising.
Advertisements must not be inserted in the
course of certain specific proscribed types of
programs which last less than half an hour in
scheduled duration; this list includes any news
or current affairs programs, documentaries, and
programs for children; additionally,
advertisements may not be carried in a program
designed and broadcast for reception in schools
or in any religious broadcasting service or other
devotional program or during a formal Royal
ceremony or occasion. There also must be clear
demarcations in time between the programs and
the advertisements. The BBC , being strictly non-
commercial , is not allowed to show
advertisements on television in the UK, although
it has many advertising-funded channels abroad.
The majority of its budget comes from television
license fees (see below) and broadcast
syndication , the sale of content to other
broadcasters.
Ireland
Broadcast advertising is regulated by the
Broadcasting Authority of Ireland , [190]
Subscription
Some TV channels are partly funded from
subscriptions; therefore, the signals are
encrypted during broadcast to ensure that only
the paying subscribers have access to the
decryption codes to watch pay television or
specialty channels . Most subscription services
are also funded by advertising.
Taxation or license
Television services in some countries may be
funded by a television licence or a form of
taxation, which means that advertising plays a
lesser role or no role at all. For example, some
channels may carry no advertising at all and
some very little, including:
Australia ( ABC )
Belgium (RTBF)
Denmark ( DR)
Ireland (RTÉ )
Japan ( NHK)
Norway ( NRK)
Sweden ( SVT )
United Kingdom ( BBC )
United States ( PBS)
The BBC carries no television advertising on its
UK channels and is funded by an annual
television licence paid by premises receiving live
TV broadcasts. Currently, it is estimated that
approximately 26.8 million UK private domestic
households own televisions, with approximately
25 million TV licences in all premises in force
as of 2010. [191] This television license fee is
set by the government, but the BBC is not
answerable to or controlled by the government.
The two main BBC TV channels are watched by
almost 90% of the population each week and
overall have 27% share of total viewing, [192]
despite the fact that 85% of homes are
multichannel, with 42% of these having access to
200 free to air channels via satellite and another
43% having access to 30 or more channels via
Freeview. [193] The licence that funds the seven
advertising-free BBC TV channels costs £147 a
year (about US$200) as of 2018 regardless of
the number of TV sets owned; the price is
reduced by two-thirds if only black and white
television is received. [194] When the same
sporting event has been presented on both BBC
and commercial channels, the BBC always
attracts the lion's share of the audience ,
indicating that viewers prefer to watch TV
uninterrupted by advertising.
Other than internal promotional material, the
Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)
carries no advertising; it is banned under the
ABC Act 1983. The ABC receives its funding
from the Australian government every three
years. In the 2014/15 federal budget, the ABC
received A$1.11 billion. [195] The funds provide
for the ABC's television, radio, online, and
international outputs. The ABC also receives
funds from its many ABC shops across
Australia. Although funded by the Australian
government, the editorial independence of the
ABC is ensured through law.
In France, government-funded channels carry
advertisements, yet those who own television
sets have to pay an annual tax ("la redevance
audiovisuelle"). [196]
In Japan, NHK is paid for by license fees (known
in Japanese as reception fee (受信料
Jushinryō )). The broadcast law that governs
NHK's funding stipulates that any television
equipped to receive NHK is required to pay. The
fee is standardized, with discounts for office
workers and students who commute, as well a
general discount for residents of Okinawa
prefecture.
Broadcast programming
Main article: Broadcast programming
See also: TV listings (UK)
Broadcast programming, or TV listings in the
United Kingdom, is the practice of organizing
television programs in a schedule, with
broadcast automation used to regularly change
the scheduling of TV programs to build an
audience for a new show, retain that audience, or
compete with other broadcasters' programs.
Social aspects
Main article: Social aspects of television
American family watching television,
circa 1958
Television has played a pivotal role in the
socialization of the 20th and 21st centuries.
There are many aspects of television that can be
addressed, including negative issues such as
media violence. Current research is discovering
that individuals suffering from social isolation
can employ television to create what is termed a
parasocial or faux relationship with characters
from their favorite television shows and movies
as a way of deflecting feelings of loneliness and
social deprivation. [197] Several studies have
found that educational television has many
advantages. The article "The Good Things about
Television" [198] argues that television can be a
very powerful and effective learning tool for
children if used wisely.
Consumption
Main article: Television consumption
Negative impacts
With high lead content in CRTs and the rapid
diffusion of new flat-panel display technologies,
some of which (LCDs ) use lamps which contain
mercury , there is growing concern about
electronic waste from discarded televisions.
Related occupational health concerns exist, as
well, for disassemblers removing copper wiring
and other materials from CRTs. Further
environmental concerns related to television
design and use relate to the devices' increasing
electrical energy requirements. [199]
A 2017 study in The Journal of Human
Resources found that exposure to cable
television reduced cognitive ability and high
school graduation rates for boys. This effect was
stronger for boys from more educated families.
The article suggests a mechanism where light
television entertainment crowds out more
cognitively stimulating activities. [200]
See also
Television portal
B-television
Broadcast-safe
Content discovery platform
Information-action ratio
List of countries by number of television
broadcast stations
List of television manufacturers
List of years in television
Media psychology
Sign language on television
Telephilia
Television studies
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Further reading
Abramson, Albert (2003). The History of
Television, 1942 to 2000. Jefferson, NC, and
London: McFarland.
ISBN 978-0-7864-1220-4 .
Pierre Bourdieu, On Television, The New
Press, 2001.
Tim Brooks and Earle March, The Complete
Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV
Shows, 8th ed., Ballantine, 2002.
Jacques Derrida and Bernard Stiegler,
Echographies of Television, Polity Press,
2002.
David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, Tube:
the Invention of Television, Counterpoint,
Washington, DC, 1996, ISBN 1-887178-17-1 .
Steven Johnson, Everything Bad is Good for
You: How Today's Popular Culture Is Actually
Making Us Smarter, New York, Riverhead
(Penguin), 2005, 2006, ISBN 1-59448-194-6 .
Leggett, Julian (April 1941). "Television in
Color" . Popular Mechanics. Chicago.
Retrieved 7 December 2014.
Jerry Mander, Four Arguments for the
Elimination of Television, Perennial, 1978.
Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred ,
Sierra Club Books, 1992,
ISBN 0-87156-509-9 .
Neil Postman , Amusing Ourselves to Death:
Public Discourse in the Age of Show
Business , New York, Penguin US, 1985,
ISBN 0-670-80454-1 .
Evan I. Schwartz, The Last Lone Inventor: A
Tale of Genius, Deceit, and the Birth of
Television, New York, Harper Paperbacks,
2003, ISBN 0-06-093559-6 .
Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, Shaded Lives:
African-American Women and Television,
Rutgers University Press, 2002.
Alan Taylor, We, the Media: Pedagogic
Intrusions into US Mainstream Film and
Television News Broadcasting Rhetoric , Peter
Lang, 2005, ISBN 3-631-51852-8 .
Amanda D. Lotz , The Television Will Be
Revolutionized , New York University Press,
ISBN 978-0-8147-5220-3
External links
Television
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia
Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
National Association of Broadcasters
Association of Commercial Television in
Europe
The Encyclopedia of Television at the
Museum of Broadcast Communications
Television's History – The First 75 Years
Collection Profile – Television at the
Canada Science and Technology Museum
The Evolution of TV, A Brief History of TV
Technology in Japan – NHK (Japan
Broadcasting Corporation)
Worldwide Television Standards
Television at Curlie
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