Project management

Project management is the practice of initiating,
planning, executing, controlling, and closing the
work of a team to achieve specific goals and
meet specific success criteria at the specified
time.
The primary challenge of project management is
to achieve all of the project goals within the
given constraints. [1] This information is usually
described in project documentation, created at
the beginning of the development process. The
primary constraints are scope , time, quality and
budget. [2] The secondary – and more
ambitious – challenge is to optimize the
allocation of necessary inputs and apply them to
meet pre-defined objectives. The object of
project management is to produce a complete
project which complies with the client's
objectives. In many cases the object of project
management is also to shape or reform the
client's brief in order to feasibly be able to
address the client's objectives. Once the client's
objectives are clearly established they should
influence all decisions made by other people
involved in the project – for example project
managers, designers, contractors and sub-
contractors. Ill-defined or too tightly prescribed
project management objectives are detrimental
to decision making.
A project is a temporary endeavor designed to
produce a unique product, service or result with
a defined beginning and end (usually time-
constrained, and often constrained by funding or
staffing) undertaken to meet unique goals and
objectives, typically to bring about beneficial
change or added value. [3][4] The temporary
nature of projects stands in contrast with
business as usual (or operations) , [5] which are
repetitive, permanent, or semi-permanent
functional activities to produce products or
services. In practice, the management of such
distinct production approaches requires the
development of distinct technical skills and
management strategies. [6]
History
Until 1900, civil engineering projects were
generally managed by creative architects,
engineers, and master builders themselves, for
example, Vitruvius (first century BC), Christopher
Wren (1632–1723), Thomas Telford (1757–
1834) and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–
1859). [7] In the 1950s organizations started to
systematically apply project-management tools
and techniques to complex engineering
projects. [8]
Henry Gantt (1861–1919), the
father of planning and control
techniques
As a discipline, project management developed
from several fields of application including civil
construction, engineering, and heavy defense
activity. [9] Two forefathers of project
management are Henry Gantt , called the father of
planning and control techniques, [10] who is
famous for his use of the Gantt chart as a
project management tool (alternatively
Harmonogram first proposed by Karol
Adamiecki [11] ); and Henri Fayol for his creation
of the five management functions that form the
foundation of the body of knowledge associated
with project and program management. [12] Both
Gantt and Fayol were students of Frederick
Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific
management . His work is the forerunner to
modern project management tools including
work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource
allocation.
The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern
project management era where core engineering
fields come together to work as one. Project
management became recognized as a distinct
discipline arising from the management
discipline with engineering model. [13] In the
United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were
managed on an ad-hoc basis, using mostly
Gantt charts and informal techniques and tools.
At that time, two mathematical project-
scheduling models were developed. The " critical
path method " (CPM) was developed as a joint
venture between DuPont Corporation and
Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant
maintenance projects. The "program evaluation
and review technique " (PERT), was developed by
the U.S. Navy Special Projects Office in
conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation and
Booz Allen Hamilton as part of the Polaris
missile submarine program. [14]
PERT and CPM are very similar in their approach
but still present some differences. CPM is used
for projects that assume deterministic activity
times; the times at which each activity will be
carried out are known. PERT, on the other hand,
allows for stochastic activity times; the times at
which each activity will be carried out are
uncertain or varied. Because of this core
difference, CPM and PERT are used in different
contexts. These mathematical techniques quickly
spread into many private enterprises.
PERT network chart for a seven-month
project with five milestones
At the same time, as project-scheduling models
were being developed, technology for project
cost estimating , cost management and
engineering economics was evolving, with
pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In
1956, the American Association of Cost
Engineers (now AACE International; the
Association for the Advancement of Cost
Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of
project management and the associated
specialties of planning and scheduling, cost
estimating, and cost/schedule control (project
control). AACE continued its pioneering work and
in 2006 released the first integrated process for
portfolio, program and project management ( total
cost management framework).
In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI)
was formed in the USA. [15] PMI publishes A
Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), which describes
project management practices that are common
to "most projects, most of the time." PMI also
offers a range of certifications.
Project management
types
Project management can apply to any project,
but it is often tailored to accommodate the
specific needs of different and highly specialized
industries. For example, the construction
industry, which focuses on the delivery of things
like buildings, roads, and bridges, has developed
its own specialized form of project management
that it refers to as construction project
management and in which project managers can
become trained and certified. [16] The
information technology industry has also evolved
to develop its own form of project management
that is referred to as IT project management and
which specializes in the delivery of technical
assets and services that are required to pass
through various lifecycle phases such as
planning, design, development, testing, and
deployment. Biotechnology project management
focuses on the intricacies of biotechnology
research and development. [17] Localization
project management includes many standard
project management practices even though many
consider this type of management to be a very
different discipline. It focuses on three important
goals: time, quality and budget. Successful
projects are completed on schedule, within
budget, and according to previously agreed
quality standards. [18]
For each type of project management, project
managers develop and utilize repeatable
templates that are specific to the industry they're
dealing with. This allows project plans to
become very thorough and highly repeatable,
with the specific intent to increase quality, lower
delivery costs, and lower time to deliver project
results.
Approaches
A 2017 study suggested that the success of any
project depends on how well four key aspects
are aligned with the contextual dynamics
affecting the project, these are referred to as the
four P's : [19]
Plan : The planning and forecasting activities.
Process: The overall approach to all activities
and project governance.
People: Including dynamics of how they
collaborate and communicate.
Power: Lines of authority, decision-makers,
organograms, policies for implementation and
the like.
There are a number of approaches to organizing
and completing project activities, including:
phased, lean, iterative, and incremental. There
are also several extensions to project planning,
for example based on outcomes (product-based)
or activities (process-based).
Regardless of the methodology employed,
careful consideration must be given to the
overall project objectives, timeline, and cost, as
well as the roles and responsibilities of all
participants and stakeholders . [20]
Benefits realization management
Main article: Benefits realisation management
Benefits realization management (BRM)
enhances normal project management techniques
through a focus on outcomes (benefits) of a
project rather than products or outputs, and then
measuring the degree to which that is happening
to keep a project on track. This can help to
reduce the risk of a completed project being a
failure by delivering agreed upon requirements/
outputs but failing to deliver the benefits of those
requirements.
In addition, BRM practices aim to ensure the
alignment between project outcomes and
business strategies. The effectiveness of these
practices is supported by recent research
evidencing BRM practices influencing project
success from a strategic perspective across
different countries and industries. [21]
An example of delivering a project to
requirements might be agreeing to deliver a
computer system that will process staff data and
manage payroll, holiday and staff personnel
records. Under BRM the agreement might be to
achieve a specified reduction in staff hours
required to process and maintain staff data.
Critical chain project
management
Main article: Critical chain project
management
Critical chain project management (CCPM) is an
application of the theory of constraints (TOC) to
planning and managing projects, and is designed
to deal with the uncertainties inherent in
managing projects, while taking into
consideration limited availability of resources
(physical, human skills, as well as management
& support capacity) needed to execute projects.
The goal is to increase the flow of projects in an
organization (throughput). Applying the first three
of the five focusing steps of TOC, the system
constraint for all projects, as well as the
resources, are identified. To exploit the
constraint, tasks on the critical chain are given
priority over all other activities. Finally, projects
are planned and managed to ensure that the
resources are ready when the critical chain tasks
must start, subordinating all other resources to
the critical chain.
Earned value management
Main article: Earned value management
Earned Value chart shows Planned
Value, Earned Value, Actual Cost, and
their variances in percent. The approach
is used in project management
simulation SimulTrain .
Earned value management (EVM) extends project
management with techniques to improve project
monitoring. It illustrates project progress towards
completion in terms of work and value (cost).
Earned Schedule is an extension to the theory
and practice of EVM. forcasting at completion is
newest theory than Earned Schedule. This theory
is introduced in 2019 . [22]
Iterative and incremental project
management
See also: Iterative and incremental
development
In critical studies of project management it has
been noted that phased approaches are not well
suited for projects which are large-scale and
multi-company, [23] with undefined, ambiguous,
or fast-changing requirements, [24] or those with
high degrees of risk, dependency, and fast-
changing technologies. [25] The cone of
uncertainty explains some of this as the planning
made on the initial phase of the project suffers
from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes
especially true as software development is often
the realization of a new or novel product.
These complexities are better handled with a
more exploratory or iterative and incremental
approach. [26] Several models of iterative and
incremental project management have evolved,
including agile project management , dynamic
systems development method , extreme project
management , and Innovation Engineering®. [27]
Lean project management
Main article: Lean project management
Lean project management uses the principles
from lean manufacturing to focus on delivering
value with less waste and reduced time
Phased approach
The phased (or staged) approach breaks down
and manages the work through a series of
distinct steps to be completed, and is often
referred to as "traditional" [28] or " waterfall". [29]
Although it can vary, it typically consists of five
process areas, four phases plus control:
Typical development phases of an engineering
project
1. initiation
2. planning and design
3. construction
4. monitoring and controlling
5. completion or closing
Many industries use variations of these project
stages and it is not uncommon for the stages to
be renamed in order to better suit the
organization. For example, when working on a
brick-and-mortar design and construction,
projects will typically progress through stages
like pre-planning, conceptual design, schematic
design, design development, construction
drawings (or contract documents), and
construction administration.
While the phased approach works well for small,
well-defined projects, it often results in challenge
or failure on larger projects, or those that are
more complex or have more ambiguities, issues
and risk. [30]
Process-based management
Main article: Process-based management
The incorporation of process-based management
has been driven by the use of maturity models
such as the OPM3 and the CMMI (capability
maturity model integration; see this example of a
predecessor) and ISO/IEC 15504 (SPICE –
software process improvement and capability
estimation). Unlike SEI's CMM, the OPM3
maturity model describes how to make project
management processes capable of performing
successfully, consistently, and predictably in
order to enact the strategies of an organization.
Project production management
Main article: Project production management
Project production management is the
application of operations management to the
delivery of capital projects. The Project
production management framework is based on
a project as a production system view, in which
a project transforms inputs (raw materials,
information, labor, plant & machinery) into
outputs (goods and services). [31]
Product-based planning
Main article: Product-based planning
Product-based planning is a structured approach
to project management, based on identifying all
of the products (project deliverables ) that
contribute to achieving the project objectives. As
such, it defines a successful project as output-
oriented rather than activity- or task-oriented. [32]
The most common implementation of this
approach is PRINCE2 . [33]
Process groups
The project development stages[34]
Traditionally (depending on what project
management methodology is being used),
project management includes a number of
elements: four to five project management
process groups, and a control system.
Regardless of the methodology or terminology
used, the same basic project management
processes or stages of development will be
used. Major process groups generally include: [2]
Initiation
Planning
Production or execution
Monitoring and controlling
Closing
In project environments with a significant
exploratory element (e.g., research and
development ), these stages may be
supplemented with decision points (go/no go
decisions) at which the project's continuation is
debated and decided. An example is the Phase–
gate model.
Initiating
Initiating process group processes[34]
The initiating processes determine the nature
and scope of the project. [35] If this stage is not
performed well, it is unlikely that the project will
be successful in meeting the business’ needs.
The key project controls needed here are an
understanding of the business environment and
making sure that all necessary controls are
incorporated into the project. Any deficiencies
should be reported and a recommendation
should be made to fix them.
The initiating stage should include a plan that
encompasses the following areas. These areas
can be recorded in a series of documents called
Project Initiation documents. Project Initiation
documents are a series of planned documents
used to create order for the duration of the
project. These tend to include:
RACI(Q) chart. At least one Responsible and
exactly one Accountable person are designated
for each project and planning activity.
project proposal (idea behind project, overall
goal, duration)
project scope (project direction and track)
product breakdown structure (PBS) (a
hierarchy of deliverables / outcomes and
components thereof)
work breakdown structure (WBS) (a hierarchy
of the work to be done, down to daily tasks)
responsibility assignment matrix (RACI) (roles
and responsibilities aligned to deliverables /
outcomes)
tentative project schedule (milestones,
important dates, deadlines)
analysis of business needs and requirements
against measurable goals
review of the current operations
financial analysis of the costs and benefits,
including a budget
stakeholder analysis , including users and
support personnel for the project
project charter including costs, tasks,
deliverables, and schedules
SWOT analysis : strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats to the business
Planning
After the initiation stage, the project is planned
to an appropriate level of detail (see example of
a flow-chart ). [34] The main purpose is to plan
time, cost and resources adequately to estimate
the work needed and to effectively manage risk
during project execution. As with the Initiation
process group, a failure to adequately plan
greatly reduces the project's chances of
successfully accomplishing its goals.
Project planning generally consists of [36]
determining the project management
methodology to follow (e.g. whether the plan
will be defined wholly up front , iteratively, or
in rolling waves );
developing the scope statement ;
selecting the planning team;
identifying deliverables and creating the
product and work breakdown structures;
identifying the activities needed to complete
those deliverables and networking the
activities in their logical sequence;
estimating the resource requirements for the
activities;
estimating time and cost for activities;
developing the schedule;
developing the budget;
risk planning;
developing quality assurance measures;
gaining formal approval to begin work.
Additional processes, such as planning for
communications and for scope management,
identifying roles and responsibilities, determining
what to purchase for the project and holding a
kick-off meeting are also generally advisable.
For new product development projects,
conceptual design of the operation of the final
product may be performed concurrent with the
project planning activities, and may help to
inform the planning team when identifying
deliverables and planning activities.
Executing
Executing process group processes[34]
While executing we must know what are the
planned terms that need to be executed . The
execution/implementation phase ensures that the
project management plan's deliverables are
executed accordingly. This phase involves proper
allocation, co-ordination and management of
human resources and any other resources such
as material and budgets. The output of this
phase is the project deliverables.
Project Documentation
Documenting everything within a project is key to
being successful. In order to maintain budget,
scope, effectiveness and pace a project must
have physical documents pertaining to each
specific task. With correct documentation, it is
easy to see whether or not a project's
requirement has been met. To go along with
that, documentation provides information
regarding what has already been completed for
that project. Documentation throughout a project
provides a paper trail for anyone who needs to
go back and reference the work in the past. In
most cases, documentation is the most
successful way to monitor and control the
specific phases of a project. With the correct
documentation, a project's success can be
tracked and observed as the project goes on. If
performed correctly documentation can be the
backbone to a project's success.
Monitoring and controlling
Monitoring and controlling process group
processes[34]
Monitoring and controlling consists of those
processes performed to observe project
execution so that potential problems can be
identified in a timely manner and corrective
action can be taken, when necessary, to control
the execution of the project. The key benefit is
that project performance is observed and
measured regularly to identify variances from the
project management plan.
Monitoring and controlling includes: [37]
Measuring the ongoing project activities
('where we are');
Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort,
scope, etc.) against the project management
plan and the project performance baseline
(where we should be);
Identifying corrective actions to address
issues and risks properly ( How can we get on
track again );
Influencing the factors that could circumvent
integrated change control so only approved
changes are implemented.
In multi-phase projects, the monitoring and
control process also provides feedback between
project phases, in order to implement corrective
or preventive actions to bring the project into
compliance with the project management plan.
Project maintenance is an ongoing process, and
it includes: [2]
Continuing support of end-users
Correction of errors
Updates to the product over time
Monitoring and controlling cycle
In this stage, auditors should pay attention to
how effectively and quickly user problems are
resolved.
Over the course of any construction project, the
work scope may change. Change is a normal
and expected part of the construction process.
Changes can be the result of necessary design
modifications, differing site conditions, material
availability, contractor-requested changes, value
engineering and impacts from third parties, to
name a few. Beyond executing the change in the
field, the change normally needs to be
documented to show what was actually
constructed. This is referred to as change
management. Hence, the owner usually requires
a final record to show all changes or, more
specifically, any change that modifies the
tangible portions of the finished work. The
record is made on the contract documents –
usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design
drawings. The end product of this effort is what
the industry terms as-built drawings, or more
simply, "as built." The requirement for providing
them is a norm in construction contracts.
Construction document management is a highly
important task undertaken with the aid an online
or desktop software system, or maintained
through physical documentation. The increasing
legality pertaining to the construction industry's
maintenance of correct documentation has
caused the increase in the need for document
management systems.
When changes are introduced to the project, the
viability of the project has to be re-assessed. It
is important not to lose sight of the initial goals
and targets of the projects. When the changes
accumulate, the forecasted result may not justify
the original proposed investment in the project.
Successful project management identifies these
components, and tracks and monitors progress
so as to stay within time and budget frames
already outlined at the commencement of the
project.
Closing
Closing process group processes. [34]
Closing includes the formal acceptance of the
project and the ending thereof. Administrative
activities include the archiving of the files and
documenting lessons learned.
This phase consists of: [2]
Contract closure: Complete and settle each
contract (including the resolution of any open
items) and close each contract applicable to
the project or project phase.
Project close: Finalize all activities across all
of the process groups to formally close the
project or a project phase
Also included in this phase is the Post
Implementation Review. This is a vital phase of
the project for the project team to learn from
experiences and apply to future projects.
Normally a Post Implementation Review consists
of looking at things that went well and analyzing
things that went badly on the project to come up
with lessons learned.
Project controlling and project
control systems
Project controlling (also known as Cost
Engineering) [38] should be established as an
independent function in project management. It
implements verification and controlling function
during the processing of a project in order to
reinforce the defined performance and formal
goals. [39] The tasks of project controlling are
also:
the creation of infrastructure for the supply of
the right information and its update
the establishment of a way to communicate
disparities of project parameters
the development of project information
technology based on an intranet or the
determination of a project key performance
indicator system (KPI)
divergence analyses and generation of
proposals for potential project regulations [40]
the establishment of methods to accomplish
an appropriate project structure, project
workflow organization, project control and
governance
creation of transparency among the project
parameters[41]
Fulfillment and implementation of these tasks
can be achieved by applying specific methods
and instruments of project controlling. The
following methods of project controlling can be
applied:
investment analysis
cost–benefit analysis
value benefit analysis
expert surveys
simulation calculations
risk-profile analysis
surcharge calculations
milestone trend analysis
cost trend analysis
target/actual-comparison [42]
Project control is that element of a project that
keeps it on track, on-time and within budget. [37]
Project control begins early in the project with
planning and ends late in the project with post-
implementation review, having a thorough
involvement of each step in the process.
Projects may be audited or reviewed while the
project is in progress. Formal audits are
generally risk or compliance-based and
management will direct the objectives of the
audit. An examination may include a comparison
of approved project management processes with
how the project is actually being managed. [43]
Each project should be assessed for the
appropriate level of control needed: too much
control is too time consuming, too little control
is very risky. If project control is not
implemented correctly, the cost to the business
should be clarified in terms of errors and fixes.
Control systems are needed for cost, risk ,
quality, communication, time, change,
procurement, and human resources. In addition,
auditors should consider how important the
projects are to the financial statements , how
reliant the stakeholders are on controls, and how
many controls exist. Auditors should review the
development process and procedures for how
they are implemented. The process of
development and the quality of the final product
may also be assessed if needed or requested. A
business may want the auditing firm to be
involved throughout the process to catch
problems earlier on so that they can be fixed
more easily. An auditor can serve as a controls
consultant as part of the development team or
as an independent auditor as part of an audit.
Businesses sometimes use formal systems
development processes. These help assure
systems are developed successfully. A formal
process is more effective in creating strong
controls, and auditors should review this process
to confirm that it is well designed and is
followed in practice. A good formal systems
development plan outlines:
A strategy to align development with the
organization's broader objectives
Standards for new systems
Project management policies for timing and
budgeting
Procedures describing the process
Evaluation of quality of change
Characteristics of
projects
There are five important characteristics of a
project. (i) It should always have a specific start
and end dates. (ii) They are performed and
completed by a group of people. (iii) The output
is delivery on unique product or service. (iv)
They are temporary in nature. (v) It is
progressively elaborated. example: Designing a
new car, writing a book.
Project Complexity
Complexity and its nature plays an important
role in the area of project management. Despite
having number of debates on this subject matter,
studies suggest lack of definition and reasonable
understanding of complexity in relation to
management of complex projects. [44] As it is
considered that project complexity and project
performance are closely related, it is important
to define and measure complexity of the project
for project management to be effective. [45]
By applying the discovery in measuring work
complexity described in Requisite Organization
and Stratified Systems Theory, Dr Elliott Jaques
classifies projects and project work (stages,
tasks) into basic 7 levels of project complexity
based on such criteria as time-span of discretion
and complexity of a project's output: [46][47]
Level 1 Project – improve the direct output of
an activity (quantity, quality, time) within a
business process with targeted completion
time up to 3 months.
Level 2 Project – develop and improve
compliance to a business process with
targeted completion time from 3 months to 1
year.
Level 3 Project – develop, change and
improve a business process with targeted
completion time from 1 to 2 years.
Level 4 Project – develop, change and
improve a functional system with targeted
completion time from 2 to 5 years.
Level 5 Project – develop, change and
improve a group of functional systems /
business function with targeted completion
time from 5 to 10 years.
Level 6 Project – develop, change and
improve a whole single value chain of a
company with targeted completion time from
10 to 20 years.
Level 7 Project – develop, change and
improve multiple value chains of a company
with target completion time from 20 to 50
years. [48]
Benefits from measuring Project Complexity is to
improve project people feasibility by: [49]
Match the level of a project's complexity with
effective targeted completion time of a project
Match the level of a project's complexity with
the respective capability level of the project
manager
Match the level of a project task's complexity
with the respective capability of the project
members
Project managers
A project manager is a professional in the field
of project management. Project managers are in
charge of the people in a project. People are the
key to any successful project. Without the
correct people in the right place and at the right
time a project cannot be successful. Project
managers can have the responsibility of the
planning, execution, controlling, and closing of
any project typically relating to the construction
industry, engineering, architecture, computing ,
and telecommunications. Many other fields of
production engineering, design engineering, and
heavy industrial have project managers.
A project manager needs to understand the order
of execution of a project to schedule the project
correctly as well as the time necessary to
accomplish each individual task within the
project. A project manager is the person
accountable for accomplishing the stated project
objectives. Project Managers tend to have
multiple years’ experience in their field. A project
manager is required to know the project in and
out while supervising the workers along with the
project. Typically in most construction,
engineering, architecture and industrial projects,
a project manager has another manager working
alongside of them who is typically responsible
for the execution of task on a daily basis. This
position in some cases is known as a
superintendent. A superintendent and project
manager work hand in hand in completing daily
project task. Key project management
responsibilities include creating clear and
attainable project objectives, building the project
requirements, and managing the triple constraint
(now including more constraints and calling it
competing constraints) for projects, which is
cost, time, and scope for the first three but
about three additional ones in current project
management. A typical project is composed of a
team of workers who work under the project
manager to complete the assignment. A project
manager normally reports directly to someone of
higher stature on the completion and success of
the project.
A project manager is often a client representative
and has to determine and implement the exact
needs of the client, based on knowledge of the
firm they are representing. The ability to adapt to
the various internal procedures of the contracting
party, and to form close links with the nominated
representatives, is essential in ensuring that the
key issues of cost, time, quality and above all,
client satisfaction, can be realized.
Project management
success criteria
There is a tendency to confuse the project
success with project management success. They
are two different things. Project management
success criteria is different from project success
criteria. The project management is said to be
successful if the given project is completed
within the agreed upon time, met the agreed
upon scope and within the agreed upon budget.
Meanwhile, a project is said to be successful,
when it succeeds in achieving the expected
business case.
Risk management
Main article: Project risk management
An example of the Risk Register that
includes 4 steps: Identify, Analyze, Plan
Response, Monitor and Control. [50]
The United States Department of Defense states;
"Cost, Schedule, Performance, and Risk" are the
four elements through which Department of
Defense acquisition professionals make trade-
offs and track program status. [51] There are
also international standards . Risk management
applies proactive identification (see tools) of
future problems and understanding of their
consequences allowing predictive decisions
about projects.
Work breakdown structure
Main article: Work breakdown structure
The work breakdown structure (WBS) is a tree
structure that shows a subdivision of the
activities required to achieve an objective – for
example a program, project, and contract. The
WBS may be hardware-, product-, service-, or
process -oriented (see an example in a NASA
reporting structure (2001) ). [52]
A WBS can be developed by starting with the
end objective and successively subdividing it
into manageable components in terms of size,
duration , and responsibility (e.g., systems,
subsystems, components, tasks, sub-tasks, and
work packages), which include all steps
necessary to achieve the objective. [30]
The work breakdown structure provides a
common framework for the natural development
of the overall planning and control of a contract
and is the basis for dividing work into definable
increments from which the statement of work
can be developed and technical, schedule, cost,
and labor hour reporting can be established. [52]
The work breakdown structure can be displayed
in two forms, as a table with subdivision of
tasks or as an organisational chart whose lowest
nodes are referred to as "work packages".
It is an essential element in assessing the
quality of a plan, and an initial element used
during the planning of the project. For example,
a WBS is used when the project is scheduled, so
that the use of work packages can be recorded
and tracked.
International standards
There are several project management standards,
including:
The ISO standards ISO 9000 , a family of
standards for quality management systems,
and the ISO 10006 :2003, for Quality
management systems and guidelines for
quality management in projects.
ISO 21500 :2012 – Guidance on project
management . This is the first International
Standard related to project management
published by ISO. Other standards in the
21500 family include 21503:2017 Guidance
on programme management ; 21504:2015
Guidance on portfolio management ;
21505:2017 Guidance on governance;
21506:2018 Vocabulary ; 21508:2018 Earned
value management in project and programme
management ; and 21511:2018 Work
breakdown structures for project and
programme management.
ISO 31000 :2009 – Risk management.
ISO/IEC/IEEE 16326:2009 – Systems and
Software Engineering—Life Cycle Processes—
Project Management [53]
Association for Project Management Body of
Knowledge[54]
Australian Institute of Project Management
(AIPM) has 4 levels of certification; CPPP,
CPPM, CPPD & CPPE for Certified Practicing
Project ... Partner, Manager, Director and
Executive.
Capability Maturity Model from the Software
Engineering Institute .
A Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) from the Project
Management Institute (PMI)
GAPPS, Global Alliance for Project
Performance Standards – an open source
standard describing COMPETENCIES for
project and program managers.
HERMES method , Swiss general project
management method, selected for use in
Luxembourg and international organizations.
International Project Management Association
Individual Competence Baseline[55]
The logical framework approach , which is
popular in international development
organizations.
PRINCE2 (Projects in Controlled
Environments).
Team Software Process (TSP) from the
Software Engineering Institute .
Total Cost Management Framework, AACE
International's Methodology for Integrated
Portfolio, Program and Project Management.
V-Model , an original systems development
method.
Project portfolio management
Main article: Project portfolio management
An increasing number of organizations are using
what is referred to as project portfolio
management (PPM) as a means of selecting the
right projects and then using project
management techniques[56] as the means for
delivering the outcomes in the form of benefits
to the performing private or not-for-profit
organization. PPM is usually performed by a
dedicated team of managers organized by within
a Project Management Office (PMO), usually
based within the organization.
Project management software
Main articles: Project management software
and Project management information system
Project management software is software used
to help plan, organize, and manage resource
pools, develop resource estimates and
implement plans. Depending on the
sophistication of the software, functionality may
include estimation and planning, scheduling ,
cost control and budget management , resource
allocation, collaboration software ,
communication , decision-making , workflow , risk ,
quality, documentation and/or administration
systems. [57][58]
Virtual project management
Main article: Virtual team
Virtual program management (VPM) is
management of a project done by a virtual team,
though it rarely may refer to a project
implementing a virtual environment[59] It is
noted that managing a virtual project is
fundamentally different from managing traditional
projects, [60] combining concerns of
telecommuting and global collaboration (culture,
timezones, language). [61]
See also
Related fields
Architectural engineering
Construction management
Cost engineering
Facilitation (business)
Industrial engineering
Project Production Management
Project management software
Project portfolio management
Project workforce management
Software project management
Systems engineering
Agile Construction
Related subjects
Collaborative project management
Decision-making
Earned value management
Human factors
Kanban (development)
Process architecture
Project accounting
Project governance
Program management
Project management simulation
Small-scale project management
Software development process
Systems Development Life Cycle
(SDLC)
Lists
Comparison of project
management software
Glossary of project management
List of collaborative software
List of project management
topics
Timeline of project management
References
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Project management .
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Project
management
Guidelines for Managing Projects from the
UK Department for Business, Enterprise and
Regulatory Reform (BERR)
Differences in PMP and PgMP Project
Management Certifications
[1] [ better source needed ]
1. ^ SMART criteria
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