Legal education

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Painting depicting a lecture in a knight academy,
painted by Pieter Isaacsz or Reinhold Timm for
Rosenborg Castle as part of a series of seven
paintings depicting the seven independent arts.
This painting illustrates rhetorics.
Legal education is the education of individuals in
the principles, practices, and theory of law . It
may be undertaken for several reasons, including
to provide the knowledge and skills necessary
for admission to legal practice in a particular
jurisdiction, to provide a greater breadth of
knowledge to those working in other professions
such as politics or business, to provide current
lawyers with advanced training or greater
specialisation, or to update lawyers on recent
developments in the law.
Legal education can take the form of a variety of
programs, including:
Primary degrees in law , which may be studied
at either undergraduate or graduate level
depending on the country.
Advanced academic degrees in law, such as
masters and doctoral degrees.
Practice or training courses, which
prospective lawyers are required to pass in
some countries before they may enter
practice.
Applied or specialised law accreditation,
which are less formal than degree programs
but which provide specialised certification in
particular areas.
Continuing legal education , which do not lead
to a qualification but provide practicing
lawyers with updates on recent legal
developments.
History
Early Western legal education emerged in
Republican Rome. Initially those desiring to be
advocates would train in schools of rhetoric.
Around the third century BC Tiberius Coruncanius
began teaching law as a separate discipline. [1]
His public legal instruction had the effect of
creating a class of legally skilled non-priests
( jurisprudentes ), a sort of consultancy. After
Coruncanius' death, instruction gradually became
more formal, with the introduction of books on
law beyond the then scant official Roman legal
texts. [2] It is possible that Coruncanius allowed
members of the public and students to attend
consultations with citizens in which he provided
legal advice. These consultations were probably
held outside the College of Pontiffs, and thus
accessible to all those interested. [3]
Canon and ecclesiastical law were studied in
universities in medieval Europe. However,
institutions providing education in the domestic
law of each country emerged later in the
eighteen century.
In England, legal education emerged in the late
thirteenth century through apprenticeships. The
Inns of Court controlled admission to practice
and also provided some legal training. English
universities had taught Roman and canon law for
some time, but formal degrees focused on the
native common law did not emerge until the
1800s. [4]
Forms of legal education
Primary degrees in law
Gustavianum , The Swedish Uppsala
University built 1622–1625 and now a
museum, was one of the pioneers in
formal legal education
In many countries, including most of those in the
Commonwealth of Nations , the principal law
degree is an undergraduate degree , usually
known as a Bachelor of Laws (LLB). Graduates
of such a program are eligible to become
lawyers by passing the country's equivalent of a
bar exam. In these countries, graduate law
programs are advanced degrees which allow for
more in-depth study or specialisation.
In the United States , the primary law degree is a
graduate degree known as the Juris Doctor (JD).
Students may pursue such a degree only after
completing an undergraduate degree, usually a
bachelor's degree . The undergraduate degree can
be in any field, though most American lawyers
hold bachelor's degrees in the humanities and
social sciences. American law schools are
usually an autonomous entity within a larger
university.
Primary degrees in law are offered by law
schools, known in some countries as faculties of
law. Law schools may have varying degrees of
autonomy within a particular university or, in
some countries, can be entirely independent of
any other post-secondary educational institution.
Advanced degrees in law
Higher degrees allow for more advanced
academic study. These include the Masters of
Law (LLM) by coursework or research, and
doctoral degrees such as the PhD or SJD.
Practitioners may undertake a Masters of Law by
coursework to obtain greater specialisation in an
area in which they practice. In many common
law countries, a higher degree in law is common
and expected for legal academics. In addition,
incorporating practical skills is beneficial for
practitioners seeking higher degrees to better
prepare them in their respective legal area of
practice. [5]
In contrast, higher degrees in law are uncommon
in the United States, even within the academy.
Practice or training courses
In some countries, including the United Kingdom,
Italy, Germany, Canada and some states of
Australia, [6] the final stages of vocational legal
education required to qualify to practice law are
carried out outside the university system. The
requirements for qualification as a barrister or as
a solicitor are covered in those articles.
Applied law programs or
specialist accreditation
Legal education providers in some countries
offer courses which lead to a certificate or
accreditation in applied legal practice or a
particular specialisation.
Continuing legal education
Continuing legal education (also known as
continuing professional development) programs
are informal seminars or short courses which
provide legal practitioners with an opportunity to
update their knowledge and skills throughout
their legal career. In some jurisdictions, it is
mandatory to undertake a certain amount of
continuing legal education each year.
Legal education in
different countries
Main article: Law school
Australia
Main article: List of law schools in Australia
In Australia most universities offer law as an
undergraduate-entry course (LLB, 4 years), or
combined degree course (e.g., BSc/LLB, BCom/
LLB, BA/LLB, BE/LLB, 5–6 years). Some of these
also offer a three-year postgraduate Juris Doctor
(JD) program. Bond University in Queensland
runs three full semesters each year, teaching
from mid-January to late December. This
enables the Bond University Law Faculty to offer
the LLB in the usual 8 semesters, but only 2​2⁄ 3
years. They also offer a JD in two years. The
University of Technology, Sydney will from 2010
offer a 2-year accelerated JD program. [7]
In 2008, the University of Melbourne introduced
the Melbourne Model , whereby Law is only
available as a graduate degree, with students
having to have completed a three-year bachelor's
degree (usually an Arts degree) before being
eligible. [8] Students in combined degree
programs would spend the first 3 years
completing their first bachelor's degree together
with some preliminary law subjects, and then
spend the last 2–3 years completing the law
degree (JD). Alternatively, one can finish any
bachelor's degree, and providing their academic
results are high, apply for graduate-entry into a
3-year LLB program. Australian Law Schools
include those at the University of New England ,
Australian Catholic University , Australian National
University , La Trobe University , Flinders
University , Bond University , Macquarie , Monash ,
Deakin , UNSW, University of Tasmania, Adelaide ,
Victoria University , Sydney, Melbourne ,
Queensland University of Technology , the
University of Queensland, the University of
Western Australia and the University of Canberra.
Canada
Main article: List of law schools in Canada
The professional law degree in Canada is the
Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) or Juris Doctor (J.D.),
for common law jurisdictions, and the Bachelor
of Laws, Licentiate of Law or Bachelor of Civil
Law for Quebec, a civil law jurisdiction.
Admittance to an LL.B. or J.D. program requires
at least two years of undergraduate education,
although, a completed undergraduate degree is
usually required. In practice, the vast majority of
those who are admitted have already earned at
least an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree . The
change in academic nomenclature redesignating
the common law degree as a J.D. rather than an
LL.B., currently completed or under consideration
at a number of Canadian schools, has not
affected the level of instruction—because it is
the same degree. [9][10] In the case of Quebec
civil law degrees and the transsystemic LL.B/
B.C.L. program at McGill University , students
can be admitted after college.
China
Main article: Legal education in China
List of law schools in China
Hong Kong
Main article: Legal education in Hong Kong
In Hong Kong law can be studied as a four-year
undergraduate degree Bachelor of Laws (LLB), a
two-year postgraduate degree (Juris Doctor), or
the Common Professional Examination
conversion course for non-law graduates. One
must then pass the one-year Postgraduate
Certificate in Laws (PCLL) currently offered at the
University of Hong Kong (HKU), Chinese
University of Hong Kong and City University of
Hong Kong , before starting vocational training: a
year's pupillage for barristers or a two-year
training contract for solicitors .
The move to a four-year LLB was recent and, in
the case of HKU, was aimed at shifting some of
the more theoretical aspects of the HKU PCLL
into the LLB, leaving more room for practical
instruction.
India
Main article: Legal education in India
See also: Autonomous law schools in India ,
Common Law Admission Test , and List of law
schools in India
The Bar Council of India prescribes and
supervises standard of legal education in India.
Law degrees in India are granted and conferred
in terms of the Advocates Act, 1961 , which is
a law passed by the Parliament both on the
aspect of legal education and also regulation of
conduct of legal profession. Various regional
universities or specialised national law
universities offer Law graduate degrees through
various law schools.
In India law can be studied, as LL.B. (Bachelor
of Laws) or B.L. (Bachelor of Law), a three-year
graduate degree after completion of Bachelor's
degree . Alternatively after standard 12 one can
join an integrated five-year law course which
provides option to avail B.A. LL.B. or B.B.A.
LLB. or B.Sc. LL.B. In India applied legal
education for specific branches of law is also
offered such as, Business law, Human resource
and Labour laws, Property laws, Family laws,
Human rights & Legal awareness, Taxation law
and many more.
Italy and France
Law in Italy and France is studied in a
jurisprudence school which is an entity within a
larger university. Legal education can be started
immediately after obtained a Diploma. Italian
and French law schools are affiliated with public
universities, and are thus public institutions. As a
consequence, law schools are required to admit
anyone holding the baccalaureate. However, the
failure rate is extremely high (up to 70%) during
the first two years of the "licenza in diritto".
There are no vast disparities in the quality of
Southern European law schools. Many schools
focus on their respective city and region.
The law school program is divided following the
European standards for university studies
( Bologna process ):
first a license of law program (Licence de
droit): three-year period
Then a Master of law program ( Master de
droit): two-year period
Ph.D. in Law ( Doctorat en droit ): three-year
period (often more).
The first year of the master program (M1) is
specialized : public law, private law, business
law, European and international law, etc.
The second year of the master of law program
(M2) can be work-oriented or research oriented
(the students write a substantial thesis and can
apply to doctoral programs, e.g., a PhD in Law).
The second year is competitive (entry is based
on the student's grades and overall score and on
extracurricular activities) and generally more
specialized (IP law, contract law, civil liberties,
etc.).
Students must pass a specific examination to
enter bar school (CRFPA, école du barreau).
They must successfully finish the first year of a
Master of law (M1 or maitrise de droit) to be
able to attend.
If they succeed, then after 18 months (school,
practical aspects, ethics and internship) they
then take the CAPA exam and diploma(Certificat
d'Aptitude à la Profession d'Avocat). Successful
students also take the Oath in order to practice
law.
Japan
The Japanese Ministry of Justice opened the
University of Tokyo Faculty of Law in 1877
(changed to Imperial University in 1886). To
matriculate to the University of Tokyo, students
had to finish ten to fifteen years of compulsory
education; acceptance was therefore available to
only a small elite. The law program produced
politically-dependable graduates to fill fast-track
administrative positions in government, also
known as high civil servants (koto bunkan), and
to serve as judges and prosecutors.
Private law schools opened around 1880. These
lacked the government funding given to the
University of Tokyo, so the quality of education
there lagged behind. Students only had to pass
an examination to matriculate to private law
schools, so many of them had not completed
middle school. The private law schools produced
a large portion of private attorneys because their
graduates were often ineligible to apply for
government positions.
The Imperial University Faculty of Law was given
supervisory authority over many private law
schools in 1887; by the 1920s, it promulgated a
legal curriculum comprising six basic codes:
Constitutional Law, Civil Law, Commercial Law,
Civil Procedure, Criminal Law, and Criminal
Procedure. The same basic structure survived in
Japanese legal education to the end of the
twentieth century. [11]
Prior to the implementation of the "law school
system" in 2004, the legal education system was
driven more by examinations than by formal
schooling. The passage rate for the bar exam
was historically around three percent, and nearly
all those who sat for the exam took it several
times. A number of specialized "cram schools"
trained prospective lawyers for the exam, and
these schools remain prevalent today. After
passing the bar exam, prospective barristers
were required to train for 16 months at the Legal
Research and Training Institute of the Supreme
Court of Japan. The training period has
traditionally been devoted to litigation practice
and virtually no training is given for other
aspects of legal practice, e.g., contract drafting,
legal research. During this period, the most
"capable trainees" are "selected out" to become
career judges; others may become prosecutors
or private practitioners.
In 2004, the Japanese Diet passed a law
allowing for the creation of graduate level law
school law schools (法科大学院 hōka daigakuin )
that offer a J.D., or Hōmu Hakushi (法務博士).
The 2006 bar examination was first in Japanese
history to require a law school degree as a
prerequisite. In the past, although there has been
no educational requirement, most of those who
passed the examination had earned
undergraduate degrees from "elite" Japanese
universities such as the University of Tokyo ,
Kyoto University or Hitotsubashi University . With
this new law school system came a new bar
exam, with a 40–50% passage rate which is
capped by a numerical quota. Applicants are
now limited to taking the exam three times in a
five-year period. Despite the much higher bar
passage rate with the new exam, due to the
quotas, approximately half of Japanese law
school graduates will never be admitted to
practice. The new system also reduced the
apprenticeship period at the Legal Research and
Training Institute to one year. [8]
A number of other law-related professions exist
in Japan, such as patent agents ( benrishi ), tax
accountants (zeirishi ), scriveners, etc., entry to
each of which is governed by a separate
examination. Attorneys ("bengoshi"), being
qualified to practice any law, can automatically
be qualified as patent agents and tax
accountants with no additional examination, but
not vice versa.
Korea
Main article: Law school in Korea
Legal education in Korea is driven by
examination. The profession of barristers, is
highly regulated, and the pass rate for the bar
exam is around five percent. Prospective
attorneys who do pass the exam usually take it
two or three times before passing it, and a
number of specialized "private educational
institutes" exist for prospective lawyers. After
passing the bar exam, prospective barristers
undergo a two-year training period at the Judicial
Research and Training Institute of the Supreme
Court of Korea . During this period, the most
capable trainees are "selected out" to become
career judges; others may become prosecutors
or private practitioners.
In 2007, the Korean government passed a law
allowing for the creation of three-year law
schools (법학전문대학원 ). According to the new
law, the old system of selecting lawyers by
examination will be phased out by 2013 and the
U.S.-style law schools will be the sole route to
become a lawyer. [8]
In February 2008, the Ministry of Education of
Korea selected 25 universities to open law
schools. The total enrollment for all law schools
is capped at 2,000, which is a source of
contention between the powerful Korea Bar
Association, and citizen groups and school
administrators. There is an uproar among the
schools which failed to get the government's
approval and even among the schools that did
get the approval, there is dissatisfaction due to
an extremely low enrollment number. Several law
schools are permitted to enroll 40 students per
year, which is far below the financially
sustainable number. Beginning in 2012, passage
of the Lawyer Admission Test (which is distinct
from the old bar exam) will be required for
qualification to practice.
A number of other legal professions exist in
Korea, such as patent attorneys ( 변리사 ), tax
attorneys (세무사 ), solicitors ( 법무사 ), etc., entry
to each of which is governed by a separate
examination.
Malaysia
Main article: Legal education in Malaysia
As a Commonwealth country, the Malaysian legal
education system is rooted from the United
Kingdom. Legal qualifications offered by the
local law faculties require students to have a
pre-university qualification such as the Malaysian
Higher School Certificate , A-Level , International
Baccalaureate , Foundation Course or a Diploma.
Generally, the law degree programmes in
Malaysia consist of civil law subjects, but there
are institutions such as The National University
of Malaysia, International Islamic University
Malaysia and Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin that
include Sharia or Islamic law courses as
requirements for admission and graduation. [12]
[13][14]
Malaysian law graduates from universities in the
UK, Australia or New Zealand are allowed to
practice law in Malaysia. However, they are
required to obtain a Certificate of Legal Practice
in Laws of Malaysia.
Philippines
Main article: Legal education in the
Philippines
See also: Philippine Bar Examination
Law degree programs are considered graduate
programs in the Philippines. As such, admission
to law schools requires the completion of a
bachelor's degree, with a sufficient number of
credits or units in certain subject areas. Legal
education in the Philippines is regulated and
supervised by the Legal Education Board , a
statutorily created independent Body chaired by a
retired member of the Supreme Court or of the
Court of Appeals. Its first chairman is Justice
Hilarion Aquino. Sitting as members of the
Board are a representative of the law professors,
a representative of the law deans and a
representative of the Commission on Higher
Education. The membership of a student
representative has been subject to continuing
debate and resistance on the part of law
schools. Graduation from a Philippine law school
constitutes the primary eligibility requirement for
the Philippine Bar Examinations, administered by
the Supreme Court during the month of
September every year.
In order to be eligible to take the bar
examinations, one must complete either of the
two professional degrees: The Bachelor of Laws
(LL.B.) program or the Juris Doctor (J.D.)
program. Advanced degrees are offered by some
law schools, but are not requirements for
admission to the practice of law in the
Philippines. The degrees Master of Laws
(LL.M.), Master of Legal Studies are available in
only a handful of Philippine universities and
colleges, among these San Beda College
Graduate School of Law, the University of Santo
Tomas and Ateneo de Manila University. The
Doctor of Civil Law degree (DCL) is offered only
by the University of Santo Tomas and the Doctor
of Juridical Science (JSD) degree is offered by
the San Beda College Graduate School of Law.
Graduate programs in law are also regulated by
the Legal Education Board.
Legal education in the Philippines normally
proceeds along the following route:
Undergraduate education (usually 4 years)
Law school (usually 4 years)
Admission to the bar (usually by taking a
Philippine bar exam)
Legal practice and mandatory continuing legal
education
Russia and Ukraine
Law degree – jurist (often compared to an
LL.M. , but in fact equivalent to the degree of
Specialist specific to the Soviet educational
system) is awarded in Russia and Ukraine after 5
years of study at a university. Jurist degree may
also be awarded in a shorter period of time if a
law student has already completed Bachelor or
Specialist degree in another field of studies or
has previously earned a basic law degree
(comparable to Paralegal, an associate degree in
U.S.) from a specialized law college. Bachelor
jurist degree (equivalent to Bachelor of Laws
(LL.B.)) may be earned concurrently with another
bachelor's or master's degree in some
universities (comparable to a double-major).
Note that this fused, one-degree (Specialist)
educational scheme has coexisted with the two-
degree (bachelor's – master's) scheme since
Russia and Ukraine launched their higher
education reforms to bring the domestic
educational systems in closer compliance with
the Bologna accords. See also academic degree .
The latest educational reforms created new
system where a four-year law program is offered
at the universities for earning bachelor's degree,
and a five-year law program is offered for
master's degree. The degree of Specialist is no
longer awarded and is renamed into master's
degree.
Serbia
See also: History of legal education in Serbia
and University of Belgrade Faculty of Law
To become a lawyer in Serbia, students must
graduate from an accredited faculty of law. First-
level studies last four years (eight semesters),
after which it is possible to enroll in Master's
degree and PhD studies programmes. To
become a student of the faculty of law, a
candidate must pass the admission test. The
practical training for students is organized at
courts of law, and local and international moot
court competitions. A lawyer must pass the
national bar examination to become an attorney,
a judge , or a prosecutor. In order to take the bar
exam, it is only necessary to complete the 4 year
studies programme and have a certain amount of
work experience ( i.e. as a paralegal ), but most
attorneys have also attained the master's degree
in law before passing the bar exam.
South Africa
See also: Law of South Africa and List of law
schools in South Africa
University of Stellenbosch Faculty of
Law
In South Africa, [15][16] the LL.B. is the universal
legal qualification for admission and enrollment
as an Advocate or Attorney. Since 1998, LL.B.
programmes may be entered directly at the
undergraduate level; at the same time, the LLB.
continues to be offered postgraduate and may
then be accelerated dependent on the bachelor's
degree . The programme lasts between two and
four years correspondingly[17] (compare
Australia, above). See Bachelor of Laws#South
Africa .
Although not formally required for specialised
practice, further training, e.g. in tax , is usually via
postgraduate diplomas or focused, coursework-
based LL.M. programmes. [18] Research degrees
are the LL.M. and LL.D. , or PhD depending on
university. The Master's dissertation reflects an
ability to conduct independent research, whereas
the Doctoral thesis will, in addition, constitute an
original contribution to the field of law in
question. [19] A doctorate, generally, is required
for positions in legal academia . See Master of
Laws#South Africa ; Doctor of Law#South Africa.
Historically, the B.Proc. and B.Juris were the
legal degrees offered at the undergraduate level.
The four-year BProc qualified one to practice as
an attorney, or become a prosecutor or
magistrate in the lower courts , but did not allow
for admission as an advocate. The three-year
B.Juris was the basic requirement for
prosecutors and magistrates in the lower courts,
but on its own, did not qualify one to practice as
an attorney. Both offered admission to the
LLB. [20]
For admission as an attorney, one serves
" articles" as a candidate attorney with a
practicing attorney for two years, and then writes
a "board exam" set by the relevant provincial
Law Society . See Attorneys in South Africa .
The length of articles may be reduced by
attending a practical legal training course or
performing community service .
Attorneys may additionally qualify as Notaries
and Conveyancers , via the Conveyancing and
Notarial Practice Examinations; [21] those with
technical or scientific training may further qualify
as patent attorneys – see Patent attorney#South
Africa .
The requirements to enter private practice as
advocates (Junior Counsel) are to become
members of a Bar Association by undergoing
a period of training (pupilage ) for one year with
a practicing Advocate, and to sit an admission
examination. On the recommendation of the Bar
Councils, an advocate "of proven experience and
skill" with at least ten years experience, may be
appointed by the President of South Africa as a
Senior Counsel (SC; also referred to as a
"silk"). [22] See Advocates in South Africa.
The Act regulating admission to practice law
("The Qualifications of Legal Practitioners
Amendment Act of 1997") is being revised. [23]
South American countries
Main article: Law in South America
The law of South America is one of the most
unified in the world. All countries can be said to
follow civil law systems, although recent
developments in the law of Brazil suggest a
move towards the stare decisis doctrine.
Moreover, all countries have recently signed up
to the Union of South American Nations
agreement, which aims to establish a system of
supra-national law along the lines of the
European Union.
Sri Lanka
Main article: Legal education in Sri Lanka
In order to practice law in Sri Lanka, a lawyer
must be 'admitted and enrolled as an Attorney-
at-Law of the Supreme Court of the Democratic
Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka . To be admitted
to the bar a law student must complete law
exams held by the Sri Lanka Law College and
undergo a six-month period of apprenticeship
under a senior practicing lawyer. There are two
routes taken by students:
1. Those who have gained a law degree, an
LL.B. (which is 3–4 years long in Sri Lankan
State Universities of University of Colombo,
University of Jaffna , Open University of Sri Lanka
and University of Peradeniya ) are given direct
entry to undertake law exams at the Sri Lanka
Law College.
2. Those who don't hold a law degree, could
gain entrance to the Sri Lanka Law College via a
competitive entrance exam to study law and
prepare for the law exams.
Both groups of students must undergo a period
of apprenticeship under a senior practicing
lawyer who has at least 8 years of practicing
experience. To become a judge one must be
admitted as an Attorney-at-Law.
United Kingdom
Main article: Legal education in the United
Kingdom
In England and Wales, law can be studied as an
undergraduate degree or in a Graduate Diploma
in Law where students complete the Common
Professional Examination. After obtaining the
degree which is necessary to complete certain
vocational courses and to serve a period of on
the job training before one is able to qualify to
practice as a barrister , legal executive , or
solicitor . Bar Professional Training Course is
regarded as one of the hardest degrees and
presently it is the most expensive law-related
degree.
United States
William & Mary School of Law ,
established in 1779, is the oldest
law school in the USA
Main articles: Legal education in the United
States and Law school in the United States
See also: Law School Admission Council
The education of lawyers in the United States is
generally undertaken through a law school
program, although in some states (such as
California and Virginia) applicants who have not
attended law school may qualify to take the bar
exam. [24]
Legal education in the United States normally
proceeds along the following route:
Undergraduate education (usually 4 years)
Law school (usually 3 years)
Admission to the bar (usually by taking a
state's bar exam)
Legal practice
In the United States,in most cases, the degree
awarded by American law schools is the Doctor
of Jurisprudence or Juris Doctor (J.D.), a
Doctoral degree, the pursuit of which students
undertake only after having completed an
undergraduate degree in some other field
(usually a bachelor's degree ). The law school
program is considered to be a professional
school program and upon graduation you receive
the distinct title of Doctor (although most states
strictly regulate the ability of attorneys to style
themselves "doctor").
Research degrees that are awarded include the
Master of Laws (LL.M.), Doctor of Juridical
Science degrees (J.S.D. or S.J.D.) and Doctor of
Comparative Law (D.C.L.), are post-
undergraduate and research and academic-based
level degrees. In the U.S. the Legum Doctor
(LL.D.) is only awarded as an honorary degree.
A number of law students apply for an optional
judicial clerkship (less than 10% end up in such
position), to be taken after law school and
before legal practice. Clerkships usually last one
year with appellate courts, but trial level courts
(including federal district court) are increasingly
moving towards two-year clerkships.
Once a student has graduated from law school,
he or she is expected to pursue admission to
the bar in order to practice. Requirements for
membership in the bar vary across the United
States. In almost every state, the only way to be
admitted to the bar is to pass a (usually multi-
day) written examination. Once admitted, most
States require attorneys to must meet certain
Continuing Legal Education (CLE) requirements.
Academic degrees for non-lawyers are available
at the baccalaureate and master's level. A
common baccalaureate level degree is a
Bachelor of Science in Legal Studies (B.S.).
Academic master's degrees in legal studies are
available, such as the Master of Studies (M.S.),
and the Master of Professional Studies (M.P.S.).
Such a degree is not required to enter a J.D.
program.
Foreign lawyers seeking to practice in the U.S.,
who do not have a J.D., often seek to obtain a
Master of Laws (LL.M.) (or other degrees similar
to the LL.M., such as the Juris Master (J.M.),
Master of Comparative Law (M.C.L.) and Master
of Jurisprudence (M.J.)).
See also
Law degree
Lists of law schools
Moot Court
Mock trial
Trial advocacy
IRAC
Law school outlines
Legal clinic
Socratic method
Legal awareness
List of national legal systems
References
1. ^ George Long article, p. 655 of A Dictionary
of Greek and Roman Anqiquities by William
Smith. John Murray, London 1875.
2. ^ Unknown. "legal education." Encyclopædia
Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Retrieved 4 March 2007 < http://
secure.britannica.com/eb/article-9106475 >.
3. ^ [1]
4. ^ Andrew Boon and Julian Webb, ' Legal
Education and Training in England and Wales:
Back to the Future? ' (2008) 58(1) Journal of
Legal Education 79.
5. ^ SpearIt. “Drafting Legal Documents in a
Doctrinal Class,” in Experiential Education in the
Law School Curriculum (Carolina Academic Press
2017) SSRN 3021333 .
6. ^ NSW Law Society, 'Practical Legal
Training' , retrieved 8 February 2017.
7. ^ [2] Archived November 11, 2009, at
the Wayback Machine
8. ^ a b c "Harvard Law Program on the Legal
Profession Comparative Analyses of Legal
Education, Law Firms, and Law and Legal
Procedure" . Law.harvard.edu. Retrieved
2012-11-12.
9. ^ To JD or Not JD — Law is Cool ,
November 13, 2007. Accessed 7 April 2008.
10. ^ Alumni Consultation Next for Western's JD
Proposal — Law is Cool , February 26, 2008.
Accessed 7 April 2008.
11. ^ Setsuo Miyazawa (1999). "Legal Education
and the Reproduction of the Elite in Japan, 1
Asian-Pac. L. & Pol'y J. 2" (PDF). Hawaii.edu.
Archived from the original (PDF) on
2011-06-29. Retrieved 2012-11-12.
12. ^ "AHMAD IBRAHIM KULLIYYAH OF
LAWS" . www.iium.edu.my . Retrieved
2018-12-12.
13. ^ http://www.fuha.unisza.edu.my/en/
index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=79&Itemid
=133
14. ^ "Archived copy" . Archived from the
original on 2015-02-03. Retrieved
2015-02-03.
15. ^ "Our qualifications" .
Brochure.unisa.ac.za. Archived from the
original on 2009-03-09. Retrieved
2012-11-12.
16. ^ [3] Archived April 24, 2010, at the
Wayback Machine
17. ^ [4] Archived July 26, 2010, at the
Wayback Machine
18. ^ "Master of Laws (LL.M.) Programs in
South Africa" . Llm Guide. Retrieved
2012-11-12.
19. ^ "School of Law LLM and LLD
Degrees" (PDF). Unisa.ac.za. Retrieved
2012-11-12.
20. ^ "Microsoft Word -
Law_DoL_Report.doc" (PDF). Retrieved
2012-11-12.
21. ^ "Courses in Conveyancing and Notarial
Practice" (PDF). Lssalead.org.za. Retrieved
2012-11-12.
22. ^ "A Career at the Bar in South Africa – The
General Council of the Bar (GCB)" .
Sabar.co.za. 1998-11-16. Retrieved 2012-11-12.
23. ^ [5] Archived June 15, 2010, at the
Wayback Machine
24. ^ "VBBE - Law Reader Program - Rules &
Regulations" . barexam.virginia.gov . Retrieved
2018-12-12.
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Legal education
Last edited on 15 April 2019, at
22:10