TRADING

This article is about the economic
mechanism. For other uses, see Trade
(disambiguation) .
A trader in Germany, 16th century
The San Juan de Dios Market in Guadalajara,
Jalisco .
The Liberty to Trade as Buttressed by
National Law (1909) by George Howard
Earle, Jr.
Trade involves the transfer of goods or services
from one person or entity to another, often in
exchange for money . A system or network that
allows trade is called a market.
An early form of trade, barter , saw the direct
exchange of goods and services for other goods
and services. [1] [ need quotation to verify ] Barter
involves trading things without the use of
money. [1] Later, one bartering party started to
involve precious metals , which gained symbolic
as well as practical importance. [ citation needed ]
Modern traders generally negotiate through a
medium of exchange, such as money. As a
result, buying can be separated from selling , or
earning . The invention of money (and later credit,
paper money and non-physical money ) greatly
simplified and promoted trade. Trade between
two traders is called bilateral trade , while trade
involving more than two traders is called
multilateral trade.
Trade exists due to specialization and the
division of labor, a predominant form of
economic activity in which individuals and
groups concentrate on a small aspect of
production, but use their output in trades for
other products and needs. [2] Trade exists
between regions because different regions may
have a comparative advantage (perceived or
real) in the production of some trade-able
commodity —including production of natural
resources scarce or limited elsewhere, or
because different regions' sizes may encourage
mass production. [3] In such circumstances,
trade at market prices between locations can
benefit both locations.
Retail trade consists of the sale of goods or
merchandise from a very fixed location[4] (such
as a department store, boutique or kiosk), online
or by mail , in small or individual lots for direct
consumption or use by the purchaser. [5]
Wholesale trade is defined [ by whom?] as traffic
in goods that are sold as merchandise to
retailers , or to industrial, commercial,
institutional, or other professional business
users, or to other wholesalers and related
subordinated services.
Etymology
Commerce is derived from the Latin
commercium , from cum "together" and merx ,
"merchandise." [6]
Trade from Middle English trade ("path, course of
conduct"), introduced into English by Hanseatic
merchants, from Middle Low German trade
("track, course"), from Old Saxon trada ("spoor,
track"), from Proto-Germanic *tradō ("track,
way"), and cognate with Old English tredan ("to
tread").
History
See also: Economic history of the world and
Timeline of international trade
Prehistory
Trade originated with human communication in
prehistoric times. Trading was the main facility
of prehistoric people, who bartered goods and
services from each other before the innovation of
modern-day currency. Peter Watson dates the
history of long-distance commerce from circa
150,000 years ago. [7]
In the Mediterranean region the earliest contact
between cultures were of members of the
species Homo sapiens principally using the
Danube river, at a time beginning 35,000–30,000
BCE. [8][9][10]
Some trace the origins of commerce to the very
start of transaction in prehistoric times. Apart
from traditional self-sufficiency , trading became
a principal facility of prehistoric people, who
bartered what they had for goods and services
from each other.
The caduceus has
been used today
as the symbol of
commerce[11]
with which
Mercury has
traditionally been
associated.
Ancient history
Ancient Etruscan " aryballoi" terracota
vessels unearthed in the 1860s at
Bolzhaya Bliznitsa tumulus near
Phanagoria , South Russia (then part of
the Bosporan Kingdom of Cimmerian
Bosporus ); on exhibit at the Hermitage
Museum in Saint Petersburg.
Trade is believed to have taken place throughout
much of recorded human history. There is
evidence of the exchange of obsidian and flint
during the stone age . Trade in obsidian is
believed to have taken place in Guinea from
17,000 BCE. [12][13]
Trade in the stone age was investigated by
Robert Carr Bosanquet in excavations of
1901. [15][16] Trade is believed to have first
begun in south west Asia. [17][18]
Archaeological evidence of obsidian use provides
data on how this material was increasingly the
preferred choice rather than chert from the late
Mesolithic to Neolithic, requiring exchange as
deposits of obsidian are rare in the
Mediterranean region. [19][20][21]
Obsidian is thought to have provided the
material to make cutting utensils or tools,
although since other more easily obtainable
materials were available, use was found
exclusive to the higher status of the tribe using
"the rich man's flint". [17]
Obsidian was traded at distances of 900
kilometres within the Mediterranean region. [22]
Trade in the Mediterranean during the Neolithic
of Europe was greatest in this material. [19][23]
Networks were in existence at around 12,000
BCE[24] Anatolia was the source primarily for
trade with the Levant, Iran and Egypt according
to Zarins study of 1990. [25][26][27] Melos and
Lipari sources produced among the most
widespread trading in the Mediterranean region
as known to archaeology. [28]
The Sari-i-Sang mine in the mountains of
Afghanistan was the largest source for trade of
lapis lazuli . [29][30] The material was most
largely traded during the Kassite period of
Babylonia beginning 1595 BCE. [31][32]
Later trade
Mediterranean and Near East
Ebla was a prominent trading centre during the
third millennia, with a network reaching into
Anatolia and north Mesopotamia. [28][33][34]
[35]
A map of the Silk Road trade route
between Europe and Asia.
Materials used for creating jewelry were traded
with Egypt since 3000 BCE. Long-range trade
routes first appeared in the 3rd millennium BCE,
when Sumerians in Mesopotamia traded with the
Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley. The
Phoenicians were noted sea traders, traveling
across the Mediterranean Sea , and as far north
as Britain for sources of tin to manufacture
bronze . For this purpose they established trade
colonies the Greeks called
emporia . [ citation needed ] [36]
From the beginning of Greek civilization until the
fall of the Roman empire in the 5th century, a
financially lucrative trade brought valuable spice
to Europe from the far east, including India and
China. Roman commerce allowed its empire to
flourish and endure. The latter Roman Republic
and the Pax Romana of the Roman empire
produced a stable and secure transportation
network that enabled the shipment of trade
goods without fear of significant piracy, as Rome
had become the sole effective sea power in the
Mediterranean with the conquest of Egypt and
the near east. [37]
In ancient Greece Hermes was the god of
trade[38][39] (commerce) and weights and
measures, [40] for Romans Mercurius also god of
merchants, whose festival was celebrated by
traders on the 25th day of the fifth month. [41]
[42] The concept of free trade was an antithesis
to the will and economic direction of the
sovereigns of the ancient Greek states. Free
trade between states was stifled by the need for
strict internal controls (via taxation) to maintain
security within the treasury of the sovereign,
which nevertheless enabled the maintenance of a
modicum of civility within the structures of
functional community life. [43][44]
The fall of the Roman empire, and the
succeeding Dark Ages brought instability to
Western Europe and a near collapse of the trade
network in the western world. Trade however
continued to flourish among the kingdoms of
Africa, Middle East, India, China and Southeast
Asia. Some trade did occur in the west. For
instance, Radhanites were a medieval guild or
group (the precise meaning of the word is lost
to history) of Jewish merchants who traded
between the Christians in Europe and the
Muslims of the Near East. [45]
The Orient
Archaeological evidence (Greenberg 1951) of the
first use of trade-marks are from China dated
about 2700 BCE. [46]
Mesoamerica
Tajadero or axe money used as currency
in Mesoamerica . It had a fixed worth of
8,000 cacao seeds, which were also
used as currency. [47]
The emergence of exchange networks in the Pre-
Columbian societies of and near to Mexico are
known to have occurred within recent years
before and after 1500 BCE. [48]
Trade networks reached north to Oasisamerica.
There is evidence of established maritime trade
with the cultures of northwestern South America
and the Caribbean.
Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, commerce developed in
Europe by trading luxury goods at trade fairs.
Wealth became converted into movable wealth or
capital . Banking systems developed where
money on account was transferred across
national boundaries. Hand to hand markets
became a feature of town life, and were
regulated by town authorities.
Western Europe established a complex and
expansive trade network with cargo ships being
the main workhorse for the movement of goods,
Cogs and Hulks are two examples of such cargo
ships. [49] Many ports would develop their own
extensive trade networks. The English port city
of Bristol traded with peoples from what is
modern day Iceland, all along the western coast
of France, and down to what is now Spain. [50]
A map showing the main trade routes for goods
within late medieval Europe.
During the Middle Ages, Central Asia was the
economic center of the world. [51] The Sogdians
dominated the East-West trade route known as
the Silk Road after the 4th century CE up to the
8th century CE, with Suyab and Talas ranking
among their main centers in the north. They were
the main caravan merchants of Central Asia.
From the 8th to the 11th century, the Vikings
and Varangians traded as they sailed from and to
Scandinavia. Vikings sailed to Western Europe,
while Varangians to Russia. The Hanseatic
League was an alliance of trading cities that
maintained a trade monopoly over most of
Northern Europe and the Baltic, between the 13th
and 17th centuries.
The Age of Sail and the Industrial
Revolution
Vasco da Gama pioneered the European Spice
trade in 1498 when he reached Calicut after
sailing around the Cape of Good Hope at the
southern tip of the African continent. Prior to
this, the flow of spice into Europe from India
was controlled by Islamic powers, especially
Egypt. The spice trade was of major economic
importance and helped spur the Age of
Discovery in Europe. Spices brought to Europe
from the Eastern world were some of the most
valuable commodities for their weight,
sometimes rivaling gold .
From 1070 onward, kingdoms in West Africa
became significant members of global trade. [52]
This came initially through the movement of gold
and other resources sent out by Muslim traders
on the Trans-Saharan trading network. [52] Later,
West Africa exported gold, spices, cloth, and
slaves to European traders such as the
Portuguese, Dutch, and English. [52] This was
often in exchange for cloth, iron, or cowrie shells
which were used locally as currency. [52]
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Portuguese
gained economic advantage in the Kingdom of
Kongo due to different philosophies of trade. [52]
Whereas Portuguese traders concentrated on the
accumulation of capital, in Kongo spiritual
meaning was attached to many objects of trade.
According to economic historian Toby Green, in
Kongo "giving more than receiving was a symbol
of spiritual and political power, and
privilege." [52]
In the 16th century, the Seventeen Provinces
were the centre of free trade, imposing no
exchange controls , and advocating the free
movement of goods. Trade in the East Indies
was dominated by Portugal in the 16th century,
the Dutch Republic in the 17th century, and the
British in the 18th century. The Spanish Empire
developed regular trade links across both the
Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.
Danzig in the 17th century, a port of the
Hanseatic League .
In 1776, Adam Smith published the paper An
Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth
of Nations . It criticised Mercantilism , and argued
that economic specialisation could benefit
nations just as much as firms. Since the division
of labour was restricted by the size of the
market, he said that countries having access to
larger markets would be able to divide labour
more efficiently and thereby become more
productive . Smith said that he considered all
rationalisations of import and export controls
"dupery", which hurt the trading nation as a
whole for the benefit of specific industries.
In 1799, the Dutch East India Company, formerly
the world's largest company, became bankrupt ,
partly due to the rise of competitive free trade.
Berber trade with Timbuktu, 1853.
19th century
In 1817, David Ricardo , James Mill and Robert
Torrens showed that free trade would benefit the
industrially weak as well as the strong, in the
famous theory of comparative advantage . In
Principles of Political Economy and Taxation
Ricardo advanced the doctrine still considered
the most counterintuitive in economics :
When an inefficient producer sends the
merchandise it produces best to a country
able to produce it more efficiently, both
countries benefit.
The ascendancy of free trade was primarily
based on national advantage in the mid 19th
century. That is, the calculation made was
whether it was in any particular country's self-
interest to open its borders to imports.
John Stuart Mill proved that a country with
monopoly pricing power on the international
market could manipulate the terms of trade
through maintaining tariffs , and that the response
to this might be reciprocity in trade policy.
Ricardo and others had suggested this earlier.
This was taken as evidence against the universal
doctrine of free trade, as it was believed that
more of the economic surplus of trade would
accrue to a country following reciprocal, rather
than completely free, trade policies. This was
followed within a few years by the infant industry
scenario developed by Mill promoting the theory
that government had the duty to protect young
industries, although only for a time necessary for
them to develop full capacity. This became the
policy in many countries attempting to
industrialise and out-compete English exporters.
Milton Friedman later continued this vein of
thought, showing that in a few circumstances
tariffs might be beneficial to the host country;
but never for the world at large. [53]
20th century
The Great Depression was a major economic
recession that ran from 1929 to the late 1930s.
During this period, there was a great drop in
trade and other economic indicators.
The lack of free trade was considered by many
as a principal cause of the depression causing
stagnation and inflation. [54] Only during the
World War II the recession ended in the United
States. Also during the war, in 1944, 44
countries signed the Bretton Woods Agreement,
intended to prevent national trade barriers, to
avoid depressions. It set up rules and
institutions to regulate the international political
economy : the International Monetary Fund and
the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (later divided into the World Bank
and Bank for International Settlements). These
organisations became operational in 1946 after
enough countries ratified the agreement. In 1947,
23 countries agreed to the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade to promote free trade. [55]
The European Union became the world's largest
exporter of manufactured goods and services,
the biggest export market for around 80
countries. [56]
21st century
See also: Globalization
Today, trade is merely a subset within a
complex system of companies which try to
maximize their profits by offering products and
services to the market (which consists both of
individuals and other companies) at the lowest
production cost . A system of international trade
has helped to develop the world economy but, in
combination with bilateral or multilateral
agreements to lower tariffs or to achieve free
trade, has sometimes harmed third-world
markets for local products.
Free trade
Main article: Free trade
Free trade advanced further in the late 20th
century and early 2000s:
1992 European Union lifted barriers to internal
trade in goods and labour .
January 1, 1994 the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) took effect.
1994 The GATT Marrakech Agreement
specified formation of the WTO.
January 1, 1995 World Trade Organization
was created to facilitate free trade, by
mandating mutual most favoured nation
trading status between all signatories.
EC was transformed into the European Union,
which accomplished the Economic and
Monnetary Union (EMU) in 2002, through
introducing the Euro, and creating this way a
real single market between 13 member states
as of January 1, 2007.
Intérêts des nations de l'Europe,
dévélopés relativement au commerce
(1766)
2005, the Central American Free Trade
Agreement was signed; It includes the United
States and the Dominican Republic.
Perspectives
Protectionism
Main article: Protectionism
Protectionism is the policy of restraining and
discouraging trade between states and contrasts
with the policy of free trade. This policy often
takes of form of tariffs and restrictive quotas .
Protectionist policies were particularly prevalent
in the 1930s, between the Great Depression and
the onset of World War II.
Religion
Islamic teachings encourage trading (and
condemn usury or interest ). [57][58]
Judeao-Christian teachings prohibit fraud and
dishonest measures, and historically also
forbade the charging of interest on loans. [59]
[60]
Development of money
Main article: History of money
A Roman denarius.
The first instances of money were objects with
intrinsic value. This is called commodity money
and includes any commonly available
commodity that has intrinsic value; historical
examples include pigs, rare seashells, whale's
teeth, and (often) cattle. In medieval Iraq, bread
was used as an early form of money. In Mexico
under Montezuma cocoa beans were money.
[6]
Currency was introduced as a standardised
money to facilitate a wider exchange of goods
and services. This first stage of currency, where
metals were used to represent stored value, and
symbols to represent commodities, formed the
basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over
1500 years.
Numismatists have examples of coins from the
earliest large-scale societies, although these
were initially unmarked lumps of precious
metal. [61]
Trends
Doha rounds
Main article: Doha round
The Doha round of World Trade Organization
negotiations aimed to lower barriers to trade
around the world, with a focus on making trade
fairer for developing countries. Talks have been
hung over a divide between the rich developed
countries , represented by the G20 , and the major
developing countries. Agricultural subsidies are
the most significant issue upon which agreement
has been hardest to negotiate. By contrast, there
was much agreement on trade facilitation and
capacity building. The Doha round began in
Doha, Qatar , and negotiations were continued in:
Cancún , Mexico; Geneva , Switzerland ; and Paris,
France and Hong Kong. [ citation needed ]
China
Beginning around 1978, the government of the
People's Republic of China (PRC) began an
experiment in economic reform. In contrast to
the previous Soviet -style centrally planned
economy , the new measures progressively
relaxed restrictions on farming, agricultural
distribution and, several years later, urban
enterprises and labor. The more market-oriented
approach reduced inefficiencies and stimulated
private investment, particularly by farmers, that
led to increased productivity and output. One
feature was the establishment of four (later five)
Special Economic Zones located along the
South-east coast. [ citation needed ]
The reforms proved spectacularly successful in
terms of increased output, variety, quality, price
and demand . In real terms, the economy
doubled in size between 1978 and 1986,
doubled again by 1994, and again by 2003. On
a real per capita basis, doubling from the 1978
base took place in 1987, 1996 and 2006. By
2008, the economy was 16.7 times the size it
was in 1978, and 12.1 times its previous per
capita levels. International trade progressed even
more rapidly, doubling on average every 4.5
years. Total two-way trade in January 1998
exceeded that for all of 1978; in the first quarter
of 2009, trade exceeded the full-year 1998 level.
In 2008, China's two-way trade totaled US$2.56
trillion. [62]
In 1991 China joined the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation group, a trade-promotion
forum.< https://www.apec.org/About-Us/About-
APEC/Member-Economies > In 2001, it also
joined the World Trade Organization.< https://
www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/
china_e.htm >
International trade
Main article: International trade
International trade is the exchange of goods and
services across national borders. In most
countries, it represents a significant part of GDP .
While international trade has been present
throughout much of history (see Silk Road,
Amber Road), its economic, social, and political
importance have increased in recent centuries,
mainly because of Industrialization, advanced
transportation, globalization , multinational
corporations, and outsourcing . [ citation needed ]
Empirical evidence for the success of trade can
be seen in the contrast between countries such
as South Korea, which adopted a policy of
export-oriented industrialization, and India, which
historically had a more closed policy. South
Korea has done much better by economic
criteria than India over the past fifty years,
though its success also has to do with effective
state institutions. [ citation needed ]
Trade sanctions
Trade sanctions against a specific country are
sometimes imposed, in order to punish that
country for some action. An embargo , a severe
form of externally imposed isolation, is a
blockade of all trade by one country on another.
For example, the United States has had an
embargo against Cuba for over 40 years. [63]
Trade barriers
International trade, which is governed by the
World Trade Organization , can be restricted by
both tariff and non-tariff barriers. International
trade is usually regulated by governmental
quotas and restrictions, and often taxed by
tariffs. Tariffs are usually on imports, but
sometimes countries may impose export tariffs
or subsidies . Non-tariff barriers include Sanitary
and Phytosanitary rules, labeling requirements
and food safety regulations. All of these are
called trade barriers . If a government removes all
trade barriers, a condition of free trade exists. A
government that implements a protectionist
policy establishes trade barriers. There are
usually few trade restrictions within countries
although a common feature of many developing
countries is police and other road blocks along
main highways, that primarily exist to extract
bribes. [ citation needed ]
Fair trade
The "fair trade" movement, also known as the
"trade justice" movement, promotes the use of
labour , environmental and social standards for
the production of commodities , particularly those
exported from the Third and Second Worlds to
the First World . Such ideas have also sparked a
debate on whether trade itself should be
codified as a human right. [64]
Importing firms voluntarily adhere to fair trade
standards or governments may enforce them
through a combination of employment and
commercial law . Proposed and practiced fair
trade policies vary widely, ranging from the
common prohibition of goods made using slave
labour to minimum price support schemes such
as those for coffee in the 1980s. Non-
governmental organizations also play a role in
promoting fair trade standards by serving as
independent monitors of compliance with
labeling requirements. [ citation needed ] As such,
it is a form of Protectionism.
See also
Economics portal
Accounting
Advertising
Bachelor of Commerce
Business
Capitalism
Commercial law
Distribution (business)
Wholesale
Retailing
Cargo
Eco commerce
Economic globalization
Economy
Electronic commerce
Export
Fair
Finance
Financial market
Fishery
Harvest
Industry
Import
Laissez-faire
Manufacturing
Marketing
Marketplace
Mass production
Master of Commerce
Merchandising
List of trading companies
Notes
1. ^ a b Samuelson, P (1939). "The Gains
from International Trade". The Canadian
Journal of Economics and Political
Science . 5 (2): 195–205.
doi: 10.2307/137133 .
JSTOR 137133 .
2. ^ Dollar, D; Kraay, A (2004). "Trade,
Growth, and Poverty" (PDF). The
Economic Journal. 114 (493): F22–F49.
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.509.1584 .
doi: 10.1111/
j.0013-0133.2004.00186.x . [ dead link ]
3. ^ Munim, Ziaul Haque; Schramm, Hans-
Joachim (2018). "The impacts of port
infrastructure and logistics performance
on economic growth: the mediating role
of seaborne trade". Journal of Shipping
and Trade . 3 (1): 1–19. doi: 10.1186/
s41072-018-0027-0 .
4. ^ Compare peddling and other types of
retail trade:Hoffman, K. Douglas, ed.
(2005). Marketing principles and best
practices (3 ed.). Thomson/South-
Western. p. 407.
ISBN 978-0-324-22519-8 . Retrieved
2018-05-03. "Five types of nonstore
retailing will be discussed: street
peddling, direct selling, mail-order,
automatic-merchandising machine
operators, and electronic shopping."
5. ^ "Distribution Services" . Foreign
Agricultural Service . 2000-02-09. Archived
from the original on 2006-05-15.
Retrieved 2006-04-04.
6. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
"Commerce" . Encyclopædia Britannica .
6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
p. 766.
7. ^ Watson (2005) , Introduction.
8. ^ D Abulafia; O Rackham; M Suano
(2008-07-31), The Mediterranean in
History , Getty Publications, 1 Mar 2011,
ISBN 978-1-60606-057-5 , retrieved
2012-06-26
9. ^ V Stefansson. Great Adventures and
Explorations: From the Earliest Times to
the Present As Told by the Explorers
Themselves Kessinger Publishing, 30
May 2005 ISBN 1-4179-9090-2 Retrieved
2012-06-26 [ dead link ]
10. ^ National Maritime Historical Society.
Sea History , Issues 13-25 published by
National Maritime Historical Society 1979.
Retrieved 2012-06-26
11. ^ Hans Biedermann, James Hulbert
(trans.), Dictionary of Symbolism - Cultural
Icons and the Meanings behind Them , p.
54.
12. ^ (secondary)G G Lowder – Studies in
volcanic petrology: I. Talasea, New
Guinea. II. Southwest Utah University of
California, 1970 Retrieved 2012-06-28
13. ^ T Darvill (2011-03-23), The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology , Oxford
University Press, 10 Oct 2008,
ISBN 978-0-19-953404-3 , retrieved
2012-06-28
14. ^ HIH Prince Mikasa no Miya Takahito –
Essays on Anatolian Archaeology Otto
Harrassowitz Verlag, 1993Retrieved
2012-06-16
15. ^ Vernon Horace Rendall, ed. (1904). The
Athenaeum . J. Francis. Retrieved
2012-06-09
16. ^ Donald A. Mackenzie – Myths of Crete
and Pre-Hellenic Europe – published
1917 – ISBN 1-60506-375-4 Retrieved
2012-06-09
17. ^ a b R L Smith (2008-07-31), Premodern
Trade in World History , Taylor & Francis,
2009, ISBN 978-0-415-42476-9 , retrieved
2012-06-15
18. ^ P Singh – Neolithic cultures of western
Asia Seminar Press, 20 Aug 1974
19. ^ a b J Robb (2007-07-23), The Early
Mediterranean Village: Agency, Material
Culture, and Social Change in Neolithic
Italy , Cambridge University Press, 23
July 2007, ISBN 978-0-521-84241-9 ,
retrieved 2012-06-11
20. ^ P Goldberg, V T Holliday, C Reid Ferring
– Earth Sciences and Archaeology
Springer, 2001 ISBN 0-306-46279-6
Retrieved 2012-06-28
21. ^ S L Dyson, R J Rowland – Archaeology
And History In Sardinia From The Stone
Age To The Middle Ages: Shepherds,
Sailors, & Conquerors University of
Pennsylvania – Museum of Archaeology,
2007 ISBN 1-934536-02-4 Retrieved
2012-06-28
22. ^ Williams-Thorpe, O. (1995). "Obsidian in
the Mediterranean and the Near East: A
Provenancing Success Story".
Archaeometry . 37 (2): 217–48.
doi: 10.1111/
j.1475-4754.1995.tb00740.x .
23. ^ D Harper – etymology online
Retrieved 2012-06-09
24. ^ A. J. Andrea (2011-03-23), World
History Encyclopedia, Volume 2 , ABC-
CLIO, 2011, ISBN 978-1-85109-930-6 ,
retrieved 2012-06-11
25. ^ T A H Wilkinson – Early Dynastic Egypt:
Strategies, Society and
Security [ dead link ]
26. ^ secondary – [1] + [2] + [3] +
[4] + [5]
27. ^ (was secondary) Pliny the Elder
(translated by J Bostock , H T Riley )
(1857), The natural history of Pliny,
Volume 6 , H G Bohn 1857,
ISBN 978-1-85109-930-6 , retrieved
2012-06-11
28. ^ a b E Blake; A B Knapp (2008-04-15),
The Archaeology Of Mediterranean
Prehistory , John Wiley & Sons, 21 Feb
2005, ISBN 978-0-631-23268-1 , retrieved
2012-06-22
29. ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson – Early Dynastic
Egypt: Strategies, Society and Security
Routledge, 8 Aug 2001 Retrieved
2012-07-03 [ dead link ]
30. ^ D Collon – Near Eastern Seals
University of California Press, 4 Dec 1990
Retrieved 2012-07-03
ISBN 0-520-07308-8 (Interpreting the
past: British Museum
PublicationsArmenian Research Center
collection)
31. ^ G Leick – The Babylonian world
Routledge 2007 Retrieved 2012-07-03
ISBN 1-134-26128-4
32. ^ S Bertman – Handbook To Life In
Ancient Mesopotamia Oxford University
Press, 7 Jul 2005 Retrieved 2012-07-03
ISBN 0-19-518364-9
33. ^ L S Etheredge (2008-07-31), Syria,
Lebanon, and Jordan , The Rosen
Publishing Group, 15 Jan 2011,
ISBN 978-1-61530-329-8 , retrieved
2012-06-15
34. ^ M Dumper; B E Stanley (2007), Cities of
The Middle East and North Africa: A
Historical Encyclopedia , ABC-CLIO,
2007, ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5 , retrieved
2012-06-28
35. ^ B.Gascoigne et al – History World .net
36. ^ Ivan Dikov (July 12, 2015). "Bulgarian
Archaeologists To Start Excavations of
Ancient Greek Emporium in Thracians'
Odrysian Kingdom" . Archaeology in
Bulgaria . Retrieved 28 October 2010. "An
emporium (in Latin; “emporion" in Greek)
was a settlement reserved as a trading
post, usually for the Ancient Greeks, on
the territory of another ancient nation, in
this case the Ancient Thracian Odrysian
Kingdom (5th century BC – 1st century
AD), the most powerful Thracian state."
37. ^ Pax Romana let average villagers
throughout the Empire conduct day to day
affairs without fear of armed attack.
38. ^ P D Curtin – Cross-Cultural Trade in
World History Cambridge University
Press, 25 May 1984 ISBN 0-521-26931-8
Retrieved 2012-06-25
39. ^ N. O. Brown – Hermes the Thief: The
Evolution of a Myth SteinerBooks, 1 Mar
1990 ISBN 0-940262-26-6 Retrieved
2012-06-25
40. ^ D Sacks, O Murray – A Dictionary of the
Ancient Greek World Oxford University
Press, 6 Feb 1997 ISBN 0-19-511206-7
Retrieved 2012-06-26
41. ^ Alexander S. Murray – Manual of
Mythology Wildside Press LLC, 30 May
2008 ISBN 1-4344-7028-8 Retrieved
2012-06-25
42. ^ John R. Rice – Filled With the Spirit
Sword of the Lord Publishers, 1 Aug 2000
ISBN 0-87398-255-X Retrieved
2012-06-25
43. ^ Johannes Hasebroek – Trade and
Politics in Ancient Greece Biblo &
Tannen Publishers, 1 Mar 1933 Retrieved
2012-07-04 ISBN 0-8196-0150-0
44. ^ Cambridge dictionaries online
45. ^ Moshe, Gil. "The Rādhānite Merchants
and the Land of Rādhān". Journal of the
Economic and Social History of the Orient .
17 (3): 299.
46. ^ AS Greenberg – J. Pat. Off. Soc'y, 1951
– HeinOnline
47. ^ "Aztec Hoe Money" . National Museum
of American History . Retrieved 6 October
2018.
48. ^ K G Hirth – American Antiquity Vol. 43,
No. 1 (Jan., 1978), pp. 35–45
Retrieved 2012-06-28
49. ^ McGrail, Sean (2001). Boats of the
World : From the Stone Age to Medieval
Times . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
50. ^ Poole, Austin Lane (1958). Medieval
England . Oxford: Clarendon Press.
51. ^ Beckwith (2011) , p. xxiv.
52. ^ a b c d e f Green, Toby, 1974-. A fistful
of shells : West Africa from the rise of the
slave trade to the age of revolution .
Chicago. ISBN 9780226644578 .
OCLC 1051687994 .
53. ^ Price theory Milton Friedman
54. ^ (secondary) British Broadcasting
Corporation – history
55. ^ (secondary) M Smith – V. Gollancz,
1996 ISBN 0-575-06150-2
56. ^ "EU position in world trade" . European
Commission. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
57. ^ Nomani & Rahnema (1994) , p. ?. "I want
nine out of ten people from my Ummah
(nation) as traders" and "Trader, who did
trading in truth, and sold the right quantity
and quality of goods, he will stand along
Prophets and Martyrs, on Judgment day".
58. ^ "O ye who believe! Eat not up your
property among yourselves in vanities; but
let there be among you traffic and trade
by mutual good-will." Quran 4:29 and
"Allah has allowed trading and forbidden
usury." Quran 2:275
59. ^ Leviticus 19:13
60. ^ Leviticus 19:35
61. ^ Gold was an especially common form of
early money, as described in Davies
(2002) .
62. ^ Division, US Census Bureau Foreign
Trade. "Foreign Trade: Data" .
www.census.gov . Retrieved 2017-05-07.
63. ^ "U.S.–Cuba Relations" . Council on
Foreign Relations. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
64. ^ "Should trade be considered a human
right?" . COPLA. 9 December 2008.
Archived from the original on 29 April
2011.
Bibliography
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Trade.
Beckwith, Christopher I (2011) [2009].
Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central
Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present.
Princeton: University Press.
ISBN 978-0-691-15034-5 .
Bernstein, William (2008). A Splendid
Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World. New
York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-4416-4 .
Davies, Glyn (2002) [1995]. Ideas: A History
of Money from Ancient Times to the Present
Day . Cardiff: University of Wales Press.
ISBN 978-0-7083-1773-0 .
Nomani, Farhad; Rahnema, Ali (1994). Islamic
Economic Systems. New Jersey: Zed Books.
ISBN 978-1-85649-058-0 .
Paine, Lincoln (2013). The Sea and
Civilisation: a Maritime History of the World.
Atlantic. (Covers sea-trading over the whole
world from ancient times.)
Watson, Peter (2005). Ideas: A History of
Thought and Invention from Fire to Freud. New
York: HarperCollins Publishers.
ISBN 978-0-06-621064-3 .
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Trade
Look up trade in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Agritrade Resource material on trade by
ACP countries
World Bank's World Integrated Trade
Solution provides summary trade statistics
and custom query features
World Bank's Preferential Trade Agreement
Database
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0
unless otherwise noted.
Terms of Use • Privacy • Desktop